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JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN AUGUST 1950 IN T H I S ISSUE: THE ROSE IN ARTS AND CRAFTS ( DEN RED CURRANTS AND 1ITE PINE BLISTER- RUST \ TATER RELATION OF PLANTS HORTICULTURAL rECHNIQUES IMPROVE > E ('. ROWERS' DAY — 1950 REVIEWS AND NEWS PAGES 181— 204 VOL. 51 No. 608 ENTS Si. 50 A YEAR HARDY WATER- LILIES in the pool at the New York Botanical Garden THE ROYAL WATER- LILY Victoria regia is a member of the extensive aquatic family, Nymphaeaceae, to which the hardy water- lily, Nymphaea marliacea rosea, illustrated on the front cover, belongs. But the former is many times the size of the latter. The flower of the royal water- lily, similar in shape to that of the hardy water- lily, is one or more feet in diameter. The leaves are gigantic, some measuring six to seven feet in diameter, but their texture is delicate. It is the peculiar structure of the under side which makes the leaves so strong and bouyant, sufficiently bouyant to support more than one hundred pounds— provided that the weight is evenly distributed. The lower surface is ribbed from the point at which the stalk is attached to the circumference, and also cross- ribbed, parallel to the circumference. These stout ribs are made up of hollow, air- filled compartments. Victoria regia is now being grown again at the New York Botanical Garden and may be seen in house No. 9 of the Conservatory, A REMINDER— that throughout the year the keen plantsman, amateur or professional, will always find something of interest at the New York Botanical Garden TABLE OF CONTENTS AUGUST 1950 THE ROSE AS A MOTIF IN THE DECORATIVE ARTS GARDEN RED CURRANTS AND THE WHITE PINE BLISTER- RUST Walter H. Snell WATER RELATION OF PLANTS P. W. Zimmerman PROGRESS IN HORTICULTURAL TECHNIQUES R. R. Fenska ROSE- GROWERS' DAY— JUNE 1950 REVIEWS OF RECENT BOOKS NOTES, NEWS, AND COMMENTS fohn Kent niton 181 187 191 193 196 199 203 The Journal is published monthly by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York 58, N. Y. Printed in U. S. A. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 28, 1936, at the Post Office at New York, N. Y., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Annual subscription $ 1.50. Single copies 15 cents. JOURNAL of THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN DOROTHY EBEL HANSELL, Editor VOL. 51 AUGUST 1950 No. 608 The Rose as a z^ fCotif in the ' Decorative oArts John Kent Tilton, Director Scalamandre Museum of Textiles THOUGH little is known of the very early history of the rose and who were the first people to cultivate it, it is generally accepted that the rose is one of the oldest of all plants to have been held in high esteem and to have been given symbolic significance. France and England fell under the enchantment of the rose when crusaders brought it from Asia during the middle ages. It was grown in royal gardens for its beauty and fragrance and in the monastery gardens for its medicinal and culinary properties. It attained importance in sacred and secular ceremonies becoming, for instance, the ecclesiastical emblem of perfection and being worn as a cherished ornament by women on festive occasions. The rose also achieved fame as the heraldic bearings of opposing armies in a civil war that nearly rent a nation asunder. During the Wars of The Roses in the 15th century, when the House of York with its insignia of a white rose fought with the House of Lancaster which carried the red rose on its shield, the flower became firmly established in English heraldry. The succeeding House of Tudor consolidated the two colors by adopting both for its coat- of- arms, and it became known as the " Tudor Rose". It was made the national flower of England. When the early Christians appropriated it as one of the symbols of their faith, the rose was assured an everlasting place in the decorative arts. The followers of Christianity, in order to escape persecution and death, hid themselves in the labyrinth catacombs of Rome. There on the stone walls they expressed in crude mural decoration, carving or painting, the symbolic emblems of their religion. They did not dare actually to depict in realistic forms their teachings. Instead, they adopted a secret code in which the rose was a featured symbol, signifying charity and Christian love among fellow men as well as being the symbol of the Garden of Heaven and God's Heavenly Grace. 181 182 Throughout the Gothic era, the rose flourished in both ecclesiastical and secular art as a highly stylized floral motif. The Italians preferred the trefoil or quatrefoil rose in both carved and painted ornament, while the English selected the cinquefoil. This discrimination in the usage of the number of petals is a point well worth remembering. The very name, " rose window", in Gothic church architecture is significant of the deriva- Flowers are realistically portrayed in this lampas, with brocaded satin insert, which was woven by Philippe de la Salle in France in the third quarter of the 18th century. ( From the collection of Scala-mandre Museum of Textiles). Wallpaper " Les Deux Pigeons" was made by Jean Baptiste Re'veillon and printed from woodblocks in France, circa 1785. ( Courtesy of the Cooper Union Museum of Arts and Decoration). 183 " Courtiers with Roses" — a tapestry presumably woven for Charles VII of France. The rose was his emblem and the red, white and green of the striped background, his colors. Franco- Flemish ( Tournai), 15th century. ( Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.) tion of the term, because of its circular form in which the intricate mullions simulate floral petals radiating out to the perimeter. The " rosette" was another popular treatment of the rose as a motif in which it was stylized in geometric formations of circles, squares and octagons. The " rosette" first appeared in the weaving of Chinese silk textiles during the Yuan or Mongol dynasty of the 14th century. Roses were among the multitude of flowers represented in the " mille fleurs" tapestries of the Middle Ages. They were woven in the far- famed Unicorn tapestries, made for Anne of Brittany to celebrate her marriage to Louis XII of France in 1499. The Aubusson and Gobelins tapestries of the 18th century were profusely embellished with roses. Artists during the long period of the Italian Renaissance broke away from the traditional symbolism of the Gothic, and their floral motifs assumed naturalistic forms. We find in their treatment of design in tex- 184 tiles a symmetrical and triple arrangement of roses in classic urns. The great artists of the period, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci among others, often portrayed the rose in their paintings. When the Renaissance evolved into the Baroque of the 17th century, the floral motifs assumed forms considerably larger than found in nature. In France, the 18th century produced designers, painters and weavers who have never been surpassed. Such famous men as LeBrun, Berain, Marot, Boucher and Meissonier created designs for furniture, textiles, wall decoration and the accessories in art. Watteau and Fragonard depicted romantic garden scenes in their paintings. Revel and La Salle excelled in textile designing and weaving. In all the decorative arts created by these talented men, roses were predominant. The religious significance of the rose had long been discarded and the poets and painters acclaimed it as the symbol of romance, wisdom and beauty. The floral designs were woven in textiles in a naturalistic manner that had not previously been achieved. The polychrome brocades and lampases gave the semblance of having the flowers painted upon their surfaces rather than woven into them. The era, while elaborate in its decoration, was always graceful. Wallpaper came into fashion during the latter part of the 18th century, and it is to France that the credit is largely due, although the English printed excellent wallpaper in the same period. As far back as the end of the 17th century, Jean Papillon Pere was printing paper. He was the first to make the patterns, printed from carved wood- blocks, match in repeating units when the sheets of paper were joined. Jean Bap- * ~ ^ B S K I S E J .' i^ CEaff'sAHOKS t'ste Reveillon, however, excelled him. It was he who first joined his sheets in one continuous length before printing his designs. This he accom-t C y V j W B i w ^ ' ife||- 3v'"' C£ SBiMBB plished just prior to the French •^ m^ ftSKifW. wtaMT^ Hr SEW Revolution. Paper was not A monochrome rose design printed in red on chintz from wood blocks, in England during the third quarter of the 18th century. ( From the collection of Scalamandre Museum of Textiles.) 185 Roses and other flowers decorate a tole tray. Hand painted in England, circa 1820. ( Courtesy of the Cooper Union Museum of Arts and Decoration.) manufactured in continuous length until the 19th century. Reveillon was as important in printing " papier peints" as Oberkampf was in printing " loiles du Jouy". Only the most talented artists were employed. In fact, Huet designed for both. The wallpapers resembled paintings of still life, and roses were the prime favorites of the flowers delineated. Roses lavishly adorned the gay English chintzes and the French toiles of the 18th and 19th centuries. Every conceivable variety of flower was utilized in the design. The highly decorative japanned metalware, better known by its French name, " tole", was another medium for floral decoration. Thomas Allgood who lived in Pontypool, England, in the second half of the 17th century, conceived the idea of molding thin metal plates into such useful and ornamental household utensils as trays, tea and coffee urns, vases and cache- pots. The decorations were all hand painted with an enamel made from coal by- products which, when fired, became impervious to heat and moisture. The artists were often those who had worked in porcelain potteries and this accounts for the similarity of the tole decoration to that of chinaware. Nosegays and delicate swags of roses were the motifs most copied. Tole ware was introduced in France during the Directoire period, when it was substituted for their silverware which had been melted down in the Revolution. The vogue reached America in the early 19th century. The rose motifs are needlepoint in this piece of Belgium lace, probably Bruges, 19th century. It is a combination of needlepoint and bobbin. ( Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.) 186 Stencil- work, while popular in Europe, was especially so in America, because of its inexpensiveness and the little skill required in cutting the stencils and applying the colors. Housewives and their daughters stenciled tables, chairs, boxes and trays. Itinerant artists traveled about the countryside. For their board and a nominal fee, they would stencil the walls of the parlour and, perhaps, the master bedroom. The decoration was usually in the form of borders in which the rose was entwined with other garden flowers or stylized in rosettes. Lambert Hitchcock, New England's rush bottom chair manufacturer, opened his factory in 1826 at what is now Riverton, Connecticut. His family applied the paint, usually black, and stenciled gold decoration on the splats. Swags, festoons and cornucopias of flowers abundant with roses were the preferred figures of ornamentation. When spring came, Hitchcock would set out with a wagon load of " fancy chairs" to sell to the farmers' wives. At that time, they were considered inexpensive, but today an original Hitchcock chair brings a good price in the antique shops. The making of delicate needlepoint or bobbin laces required skill and infinite patience. Each country developed various types of lace distinctive to itself. The name " rosepoint" has always been misleading, since originally the patterns contained no roses. However, among the lace authorities of today, there is a tendency to include the 19th century Brussel laces, in which the rose is featured, with the " rosepoint". The French call it " point de gaze". Wrought iron is another medium in which infinite skill is required in modeling the delicate tracery of its designs. The elaborate wrought iron grills and gates of the 18th century were frequently ornamented with floral motifs, and the rose was represented by a naturalistic portrayal. Good huswifes in sommer will save their owne seedes, against the next yeere, as occasion needes. One seede for another, to make an exchange, with fellowlie neighbourhood seemeth not strange. In harvest time, harvest folke, servants and all, should make all togither good cheere in the hall: And fill out the black boule of bleith to their song, and let them be merie all harvest time long. Now looke up to Godward, let tong never cease in thanking of him for his mightie encrease: Accept my good will, for a proofe go and trie : the better thou thrivest, the gladder am I. August Husbandrie, from " Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry" by Thomas Tusser 187 Qarden Red Qurrants and White ' Pine " Blister- Rust Spare cultivated red currants— they are sufficiently resistant to this fungus By Walter H. Snell COMPARED with the chestnut blight, the control of the blister- rust of white pine is a simple matter because the fungus causing the disease of pine cannot be spread from pine to pine but must pass a part of its life history upon currants and gooseberries ( Ribes) before reinfecting the pine. As demonstrated in an earlier article by the writer*, the spores formed on the pine can be carried by the wind at least 300 miles to Ribes, but the spores on the Ribes which reinfect the pine are the weak link in the chain in that they can be carried only relatively short distances. Therefore, the removal of Ribes from the vicinity of white pines provides a comparatively simple means of control of the disease. Paying no attention to precise biological details, it may be said that the different kinds of Ribes vary in their infectability or what has been called the " hitting power" with regard to the pine. From the very beginning, it has been recognized that cultivated English black currants are dangerous to pine at least up to a mile and a quarter and consequently they have been removed from gardens in all the eastern states where white pine is grown. All other species of currants and gooseberries, wild or cultivated, have for the most part been considered able to jeopardize pines only at distances inside of 1,000 feet, except under unusual conditions of terrain, etc. Over the past 35 years, the public has cooperated willingly in the protection of the pine by the removal of the cultivated black currants and the wild Ribes of all sorts, but it has never become reconciled to the compulsory removal of even a small row of measley, uncared for, garden red currants. This writer has never believed that cultivated currants and gooseberries were a source of danger to white pine. Here's how. One day, in my earliest blister- rust work in 1916, ahead of me up a road in Swansea, Mass., I saw a blotch of foliage decidedly bright orange in color. It was a half- acre of English black currants with the leaves completely infected with the blister- rust fungus from diseased pines across the road. Next to this patch was a half- acre of cultivated red currants, upon which I could find only scattered blister- rust infection spots— a violent contrast with the condition of the English blacks, bright green against orange. Next to these was a half- acre of cultivated gooseberries, upon which I could find no blister- rust infection at all. Therefore, even considering the known varia- * See May 1950 issue of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden. 188 bility within certain limits of the susceptibility of garden red currants to the blister- rust fungus, I have always insisted that these currants constituted no danger to white pine, at any distance from them. It was not, however, until a third eradication of red currants in the Lake George area of New York about 1935 raised a violent storm of protest that I was able to attempt to prove my thesis. My first approach was to try to find pines that could be considered infected by spores from cultivated red currants. I looked up every situation of which I could learn in the Adirondack region, where there were red currants within a reasonable distance of the pines. I located 29 cases, in most of which the red currants were within 200 feet. In 28 of these cases, pines were infected. Red currants were nearby but so were wild gooseberries— the red currants, therefore, clearly not with certainty culpable. In one case, I found red currants within 100 feet of cankered pines and no wild Ribes upon which I could place the blame. Of the 29 cases, one was shown me definitely for the purpose of confounding me. Upon casual inspection, it certainly appeared able to blow my ideas sky high! This was Case 47, the old " Ab Wrisley Place" near Lewis in Essex County, New York, an abandoned farm with 7j4 acres of planted pines surrounding an old row of 12 large red currant bushes. These pines were certainly heavily infected, nearly 45% out of the total of about 8,000 trees. It looked as if the red currants had me. Careful analysis of the situation proved interesting, however. Studying the infection conditions by 15- foot quadrats, I found a strange situation— that the percentage of infection was lowest near the red currants and became increasingly higher as one proceeded in any direction to the periphery of the plantation. Conversely, the percentage of infection of the pines was highest in the northern corner of the plot and decreased regularly from that point to the other portions of the plot. I then noticed a few small wild gooseberries about 6 inches high right at the edge of this northern corner. By digging around in the ground, I found that these small bushes were sprouts from roots many years old and then later learned, from the blister- rust personnel in the county, that large bushes had been removed from this precise spot two or three years before. I was happy, again! My next approach was to study similar white pine- red currant associations in the hardwood region of western New York, where the pines were planted ones and not native. In 9 of the 38 cases studied, the red currants were within 6 inches to 100 feet and the pines were not infected. In one case, a planting of 1,000 trees 350 feet to 800 feet from a block of over 2,700 red currants was entirely uninfected. In 12 more cases, blocks of pine, mostly of 500 to 2,000 trees 50 to 900 feet from red currants, were entirely uninfected. The remaining cases of this group were similar but not quite so spectacular. In many of the 72 cases of pines near red currants, 5 cases studied in the 189 southern New England states and 67 cases in New York State, the pines were not infected at all. In all but one case where the pines were infected, wild gooseberries were found to be as near as or nearer than the currants. As mentioned previously, in this one case where the pines were infected, no wild gooseberries could be found anywhere around. It should be added that a few cases have been reported by others in various parts of the country, in which the infection of the pines was supposed to have come from red currants, but if these few infestations were as reported, it is an exceedingly small number out of the hundreds of thousands of associations of white pine and red currants that have existed over the eastern United States during the past 40 years. Consequently, it has long been the writer's contention that red currants constitute no threat to white pine and that there is no need of eradicating them to any distance from white pine. Over the entire period of study of the white pine blister- rust, there has been the question as to why cultivated black currants threaten pine from a distance of a mile and a quarter, wild gooseberries up to less than 1,000 feet in most circumstances, and garden currants not at all. With the idea that it might possibly be the volume of the spores produced on the Ribes that infect the pine and a question of a minimum volume of spores to bring about one canker on pine, a series of rather intricate studies was made along these lines and on three groups of Ribes: ( 1) the generally heavily-infected cultivated black currants; ( 2) wild gooseberries; ( 3) cultivated red currants. On hundreds of bushes of each kind, the total number of leaves was counted, the areas measured, and the total leaf- area per bush calculated. While it was found that large red and black currant bushes would have 20,000 leaves and wild gooseberries 50,000 leaves, a good average for all of them would be 4,000 or 5,000. The figures obtained were calculated for the common unit of a row of 6 cultivated red currants and a comparable pasture grouping of wild gooseberries. A study was then made of the pathological conditions of the three kinds of Ribes in order to get a representative situation. This involved the measurement of the areas of thousands and thousands of infection spots. For future calculations, a figure of 77%, which is low, was taken for the black currants, 20% as a good average for a wild gooseberry bush, and 2.3% for the red currants, the highest found in any case and much higher than the average infection of any red currant. Next, in a long and laborious study of infected leaves under low- power microscopes, the numerical production of telia and sporidia on the three kinds of Ribes was obtained. Then, using all the data of total areas of leaves on the three groups of Ribes, the percentages of infection, and the number of sporidia typically produced per unit of infection, a possible total number of sporidia for the various lots of Ribes was obtained. These figures came out approximately as follows: over two million millions for 190 the black currants, over 260 thousand millions for the wild gooseberries, and over 33 thousand millions for the red currants— a ratio of roughly 70: 8: 1. Whether or not these figures are a valid basis of judgment, it just so happens that if black currants are dangerous to white pine up to a distance of 6,600 feet, and wild gooseberries are dangerous to a distance of 750 feet, then these figures and this ratio suggest a dangerous distance for cultivated red currants of something under 100 feet. And all this, mind you, with the entire series of calculations " loaded" in favor of the red currants, because of the low percentage of infection assigned for the black currants and a much higher percentage of infection used for the red currants than I ever found to be the case. The final study made of the relation of red currants to the blister- rust of pine was to attempt to obtain a threshold or what I called the " quantum" relationship between the spore production on the red currants and the infection of the pine— in other words, some idea of the number of sporidia produced to result in a single canker on a pine tree. Fortunately, from my earliest studies of a large number of infested pine stands in the Adiron-dacks, I had data for every area upon the Ribes population— kinds, number and sizes of bushes within and without the plots— as well as data upon the pathological conditions of the pine. By combining these quantitative Ribes data with the figures and calculations of the study just discussed, I was able to make approximations of a threshold or quantum relationship. As would be expected from the normal variability of conditions in nature, there was a wide range in the threshold figures obtained. They ran from a low of 580 million to a maximum of 79 billion sporidia to effectuate a single canker on pine. It can be seen by the simplest sort of mathematics that even if one chooses to disregard the highest figures obtained, there is not much latitude to allow for infection of pines in any area from the really meagre production of pine- infecting spores on the red currants. It would appear that red currants cannot be considered dangerous to white pines for the simple reason that they are so resistant to the blister- rust fungus that they cannot produce a sufficient number of spores under any conditions. I started out young with the idea that red currants are never sufficiently heavily infected to need to be pulled out of gardens. For 20 years more, my casual observations only strengthened this conclusion. And these studies discussed here, whatever may be said of their completeness of coverage, their finality or their scientific validity, certainly substantiate my contentions in the direction of sparing the cultivated red currants. • * • « = » 191 Water Relation of ( Plants And Factors Affecting Conservation of Moisture By P. W. Zimmerman Boyce Thompson Institute of Plant Research, Inc. SOIL moisture is probably the most important single factor which regulates the growth of plants. There are many other factors which may cause failures— insect pests, diseases, frost damage, and fertilizers. From the personal standpoint, there is no substitute for experience; from the standpoint of the plant, there is no substitute for water. The amount of water available for plants is regulated by soil type, depth of soil, soil management and rainfall or artificial watering. Sandy soils have low water- holding capacity. Such soils are adapted for rose growing only where rainfall is plentiful or can be supplemented by watering. Soils which contain clay are relatively retentive to moisture. This may, under certain conditions, work to the disadvantage of the plants. Sandy soil can give up more than 80 per cent of its moisture to growing plants, whereas clay may hold back as much as 40 per cent of its total moisture. That is, plants may wilt in clay soil while considerable moisture is present. The ideal type of soil for most plants is loam, which is a mixture containing sufficient sand to provide good drainage, sufficient clay to insure adequate water- holding capacity, organic matter and ample reserve supplies of nutrient elements. We should not ignore the importance of organic matter within the soil. This material plays an important role in plant nutrition, increases water- holding capacity of the soil and improves the physical condition of all types of soil. In farm practice, organic matter resulting from cover crops helps to prevent erosion. Approximately one inch of rainfall a week is necessary to satisfy shallow- rooted crops. Shrubs and trees can get along on slightly less. This rainfall is most beneficial if it comes between May and September. In 1949 we experienced a near drought during those months. In fact, the drought was serious enough to restrict the use of water in the New York City area throughout the winter. That brings us to the question of how to conserve moisture in the garden. Mulching of the soil is one of the most effective means for holding moisture, and it can be accomplished in a number of ways. Perhaps the simplest method is to maintain a well cultivated, loose layer of soil on the surface of the ground. This layer can be repeatedly renewed by cultivation after each rain. If the soil is well supplied with organic matter, a loose layer will be particularly effective for preventing evaporation of moisture. There are many mulching materials available, for example, sawdust, 192 ground coconut shells, buckwheat hulls, straw, and coffee grounds. In recent years, I have had a number of favorable reports from the use of sawdust for mulching purposes. It must be remembered, however, that when cellulose material is added to the soil, bacteria working thereon will rob the plants of nitrates. It is advisable to use additional fertilizer when straw, sawdust or buckwheat hulls are worked into the soil. As soon as the mulching material begins to decay, it adds to the organic matter in the soil and eventually improves the fertility and water- holding power. Plants absorb and then transpire water. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from leaves and other organs and is the most generally recognized of all processes in plants. Many common practices are based on this recognition as, for example, watering of house plants, use of irrigation systems, wrapping of cut flowers and waxing or placing nursery stock in wet sphagnum moss. Transpiration is by no means limited to leaves but may occur from the surface of any organ. Loss of water from fruit, tubers and roots is due to transpiration. The leaves, however, have the largest evaporating surface and from them occurs the greatest amount of transpiration in the growing plant. Water composes the bulk of growing plants. Young tissues may contain 95 per cent or more of water by weight. Older tissues usually contain 60 to 75 per cent water. Transpiration rates also vary with the species. On record we find that a sunflower plant four feet high lost one quart of water on a hot day. The same plant lost 123 gallons for the growing season. A ragweed lost 140 gallons for the season. One acre of corn ( 6,000 plants) lost 324,000 gallons for the season. The rate of transpiration is influenced by both internal and external factors. The principal internal factors are: ( 1) the opening and closing of stomates; ( 2) the concentration of water vapor in the internal air spaces in comparison with that of the atmosphere; ( 3) the temperature of the leaf; ( 4) the water content of plant tissue; ( 5 the occurrence of colloidal gels which have high water- holding capacity; and ( 6) the cutinized epidermal walls in some plants. Some of the most important external factors influencing the rate of transpiration are: ( 1) the energy of the sunlight as it affects the internal temperature of the leaf in relation to external temperature and also the opening and closing of stomates; ( 2) the temperature of the atmosphere and the soil; ( 3) the relative humidity of the atmosphere; ( 4) the water conditions in the soil; and ( 5) the wind or movement of air. Wind prevents the accumulation of moist air around the surface of the leaf. Evaporation of moisture from the leaf exerts a pull on the water column in the veins of the leaves, stems and roots. It tends to create a partial vacuum and that, together with root pressure, aids the plant in taking water from the soil. 193 Excessive transpiration causes wilting, if the water lost exceeds that taken in by the roots. This frequently occurs when the aerial parts of the plant are out of balance with the root system. Top pruning of transplants is practiced in order to bring about a balance with the reduced root system. Tissue development in the growing regions of plants depends on an adequate water supply in the cells. Enlargement of cells ceases when transpiration exceeds the water supply. Wilted plants either cannot manufacture food or the rate of photosynthesis is greatly reduced. If such retardation of processes takes place during the early life of many species of annual plants, they may not fully recover when subsequently supplied with an abundance of water. Similar results may be expected also with roses, though the effects may not be so pronounced. Therefore, a sufficient supply of water to prevent wilting is essential in the management of rose gardens. ' Progress in Horticultural Techniques R. R. Fenska J UST how much the early horticulturists of Asia Minor knew about the technique of hybridization and cross- breeding of plants, we do not know. Early man kept much of his knowledge secret. Botanists were linked with the medicine- man! Linnaeus, the Swedish scientist, was of the opinion that the different kinds of plants never changed. It was not until the latter half of the 19th century that Charles Darwin ( 1809- 82) and Gregor Mendel ( 1822- 84) gave us the doctrine respecting the origin of species from more primitive forms and the Mendelian law of heredity in plants. Both men supported their theories with a great mass of facts from nature. While these investigators gave us some fundamental principles of plant development, they did not complete the job. For instance, the well known Macintosh apple first appeared on a single seedling in Alberta, Canada, and had little resemblance to the fruit from the parent tree of the seedling. The Dutch botanist, Hugo DeVries ( 1848- 1935) called this mutation, or the sudden appearance of startling new properties or functions in the offspring from the parent plant. He changed the study of evolution from observation to experimental work. The true explanation of the origin and development of new varieties of plants lies possibly in some combination of facts of these different theories. Man has not reached the peak of development in this field. Luther Burbank ( 1849- 1926) carried on extensive experiments in plant breeding by selection, crossing and grafting and produced among other new and desirable varieties the spineless cactus, the Shasta daisy and the seedless apple. Right now scientists are trying to develop, through crossbreeding, plants which are immune to certain insects and plant diseases. 194 They want to rid the world of inferior species and develop a superior and better plant kingdom. It may be the beginning of " plant eugenics". Experiments with poplar hybrids have demonstrated that certain strains vary from practical immunity to complete susceptibility of defoliation by Japanese beetle. This has justified experiments to hybridize spruce species in the hope that they may produce strains resistant to budworm attacks. Also, successful hybridization between maple species and crosses between species of ash have recently been reported by the United States Forest Service. The rapid dying off of our native paper birch throughout its range, due to a combination of factors known as " die- back", has led to cross- breeding of our white or paper birch with gray birch in the hope of producing an improved birch resistant to " die- back". The hybrids produced so far are intermediate in growth rate, that is, faster than paper birch but not as fast as gray birch. It is interesting to note that hybrids often show more sustained growth than parent species. The production of fast growing, as well as insect immune and disease resistant varieties, is not only of great importance to the forest industries but also to the arborist and the horticulturist as well. The greatest problem facing the gardener, arborist and horticulturist today is the control of insects and diseases on crops and desirable shade and orchard trees. During the past seven or eight years, many new spray materials have been developed for the control of our insect pests and plant diseases. Some were hailed as miracle bug- killers. Unfortunately, most of them were placed on the market faster than experimental results warranted. Too much was expected of them. When the so- called DDT ( dichloro- diphenyl- trichloro- ethane) insecticide became available for civilian use after World War II, it brought a new concept of insect control to the gardener and horticulturist. They were told that one spraying would last for weeks, or even months, and would eliminate practically all pests. The insect merely had to walk over foliage sprayed with this material and in a matter of minutes it would be paralyzed! It was soon discovered, however, that while it would kill insects that were undesirable, it would also eliminate some predatory varieties that were desirable. In other words, it had the tendency to upset the " balance in nature" with disastrous results. Today, we are leaning more to the opinion that we shall have specific sprays for each insect pest or plant disease rather than an all- purpose spray material. We must learn to control our ever increasing insect problem or, as one prominent entomologist once predicted, " The bugs will inherit the earth". This is a real challenge and involves the work of the entomologist, the chemist and the botanist. The entomologist must determine the most vulnerable link in the life cycle of each insect, the chemist must find a suitable compound that will destroy the insect, and the botanist must experiment with foliage and plant tissues to find the insecticide that will not injure the 195 plant. Thus, it is apparent that the " dream spray" of every amateur, one that will do the job for all insects and different plants, will always be just that— a dream. Hormone compounds have been developed for use in the garden or orchard to assure a satisfactory fruit- set, to prevent premature drop of the fruit or, in the case of transplanting, to hasten the re- establishment of the plant by stimulation of root growth. When these materials have been perfected, they will be a boon to gardeners and horticulturists. On the other hand, there are instances where suppression or regulation of abnormal growth is desirable. For example, when nursery stock has been held in cold storage for a long period and then exposed to high temperatures the following spring, it may readily develop undesirable soft shoots. Recent experiments have indicated that this can be avoided, if the plants are kept dormant by spraying them in the fall or early spring with maleic- hydrazide. Another current development is the application of a nutrient element in the form of a spray solution directly to the foliage of the plant. This is revolutionary. If present experiments prove feasible, it will be possible to invigorate an ailing plant with a " shot in the air" instead of the ground. However, the cost of supplying nutrients to plants by this method will, doubtless, limit to special treatment under certain conditions rather than make it a substitute for the accepted practice of fertilization of the soil. The development of tree surgery is also noteworthy. In 1790, William Forsyth ( 1737- 1804), gardener to King George III, published his treatise of the treatment of wounds in fruit and forest trees. It was, indeed, a crude method compared with our present- day materials and technique. The so- called " Bartlett heal collar" has been one of the most important factors in the success of our modern treatment of cavities in trees. This " heal collar" serves to seal the cavity against air and moisture and protects the cambium cells from drying out, and thus promotes continuous callous growth at the edge of the wound. The new technique, or chemotherapy, for control of certain tree diseases is probably the most fascinating recent development. By this method, special chemicals are injected into the sap stream of a tree to counteract the toxic agents produced by such diseases as " bleeding canker", which attacks some of our most desirable shade trees. Experiments in chemotherapy for the control of the Dutch elm disease indicate that it is possible to condition trees to resist the disease by employing certain chemical combinations. The future development of this method of treating plants holds great possibilities. It is for the future scientists to give us the final answer to many of our present horticultural problems, if there is a final answer. You are on the first rung of the ladder. As you climb higher up, you will find many frontiers in the basic sciences still waiting to be explored. We still, for 196 instance, do not have the answer to the greatest mystery of all, namely, what is the nature and character of the green chlorophyl in plants. All living matter depends on it. What makes it " tick"? If you can find the answer to that question, you will have solved the age old riddle of life itself. There are those who say it is beyond the ken of man. Nevertheless, our best known amateur botanist, Charles Kettering, Director of Research for General Motors, who calls himself a " monkey wrench scientist", is working on this problem. He does not agree with those who claim this mystery cannot be solved by mortal man. Mr. Fenska, who is Secretary- Treasurer of the Westchester County Tree Protective Association, delivered the above address at the graduation exercises, on June 22, 1950, for students in the Two- Year Courses at the New York Botanical Garden. Rose- Qrowers' ( Day — June 1950 IN spite of disagreeable weather, more than three hundred visitors attended Rose- Growers' Day, June 15, 1950, at the New York Botanical Garden. This was the eighth annual event of such nature, arranged in co- operation with the American Rose Society. The theme of the day's program was the amateur's rose garden. While not everyone risked a drenching, a surprising number inspected the rose garden under the guidance of Lambertus C. Bobbink, of Rutherford, N. J. All were favorably impressed with the attractive layout and excellent condition of the plants. Among the notable varieties given to the rose garden this year by Bobbink & Atkins, Rutherford, N. J., were Mission Bells, Souv. de Jean Soupert, Golden Scepter, Golden Jubilee, and two weeping tree roses, Sanders' White and Minnehaha. The number of bushes now totals approximately 7,000. Dr. William J. Robbins, Director, welcomed the visitors when they gathered in the lecture hall for the morning session. Dr. P. P. Pirone, Plant Pathologist, then assumed the duties of presiding officer, introducing Floyd F. Eldred*, of Old Greenwich, Conn., and Dr. Charles Glen King, of Scarsdale, N. Y. Experiences in a Hillside Garden Dr. King gave a delightful talk about growing roses in his hillside garden. He said, in part: " In 1942, we moved to Scarsdale, N. Y., and found a new home to our liking, but the half acre lot had not been improved. Among the rather hurriedly planted trees and shrubs, we bought a few roses just as an experiment. Good luck with a dozen hybrid teas started us on our hobby which, apparently, has no limit. * See the July number of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for Mr. Eldred's talk on " An' I Learned about Roses from Them". 197 " Our rose garden now contains about 345 roses, in 52 varieties, most of which are hybrid teas. There are a few polyanthas and floribundas with only one rugosa and seven climbers on columns. " The roses which have given the most gratifying results are not always in the same relative position each year, but the following have been consistently exhilarating for a rank amateur. " Peace is right at the top of the list, for it does everything to perfection. It blooms continuously and generously, has richness of color both in foliage and flower, is vigorous in growth. Crimson Glory stands second in line as an all- round garden rose; a heavy bloomer in a velvety, rich, deep red. Eclipse is also a vigorous grower, a profuse bloomer, and has golden buds of striking form. " Other teas which we rate highly for their garden performance are Hector Deane, Lowell Thomas, Neige Parfum ( an exquisite white with a delightful perfume), Mme. Chiang Kai- shek ( of almost classic beauty as it opens), Charlotte Armstrong, Mary Margaret McBride, Betty Up-richard, Pedralbes and Sunset Glory. " Donald Prior we find one of the most satisfactory of the polyanthas A section of the extensive rose garden at the New York Botanical Garden, showing the shelter house under construction. for background material, for it bears its deep red flowers against clean, healthy leaves over a long period. Pinocchio is charming— the blooms profuse and dainty in form and color. The climber, New Dawn, produces its delicate pink flowers almost continuously, grows lustily and resists winterkill. " Just a word or two about mulching which is an important phase of growing good roses. My experience indicates that buckwheat hulls are the most satisfactory medium for this purpose. They are heavy enough to stay in place; furnish a uniformly soft, aesthetic background; provide complete protection against weeds, if applied an inch to an inch and a half thick; reduce the loss of ground moisture, for rain penetrates them; and prevent baking of the soil. Also, buckwheat hulls may be hilled up around the base of the rose bushes in winter and in spring raked level again." Rose Varieties for the Small Home Garden At the afternoon session, Roderick N. Crocket, of Hartford, Conn., President of the National Association of Gardeners, presided. Harry L. Erdman, Superintendent of the rose garden at Hershey, Pa., discussed " Rose Varieties for the Small Home Garden." Mr. Erdman stated that his subject was a controversial one in that personal likes and dislikes, different locations, different layouts and other conditions naturally affected the selection of varieties. Using " The Guide for Buying Rose Plants", distributed by the American Rose Society, Mr. Erdman named leading varieties in the various color groups for gardens small, medium and large. He ended his remarks with the recommendation that anyone contemplating a new rose garden— or even revising a present one— should visit the rose garden of the New York Botanical Garden and carefully study the different varieties, noting the habit of growth, the foliage, the shape and color of the flower. If three visits are made, said Mr. Erdman, in June, mid-season and September, then by the process of elimination one will be able to select the varieties of roses appealing most to him and most suitable to the conditions on his own place. Dr. P. W. Zimmerman, of the Boyce Thompson Institute, concluded the day's program with a very interesting talk on " Water Relations of Plants and Factors Affecting Conservation of Moisture", an abstract of which appears on page 191 of this issue. Conard- Pyle Co., West Grove, Pa., displayed the new miniature roses Pixie, Tom Thumb, Sweet Fairy, Red Elf, Bo- Peep and Midget. These tiny, hardy roses may be used in rock gardens, for edgings and for novelty display. They grow only six inches high and bloom all season. Bobbink & Atkins exhibited Autumn Bouquet ( new everblooming shrub rose), Baroness Rothschild and Felbergs Rosa Druschki ( hybrid per-petuals), Oskar Cordel ( hybrid perpetual, remontant) and Reichprasident von Hindenberg ( pillar shrub, remontant). 199 REVIEWS OF RECENT BOOKS An Aid to the Understanding Of Plant Life BOTANY. An inrtoduction to Plant Science. W. W. Robbins & T. E. Weier. 480 pages, illustrated, indexed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1950. $ 5.00. " Botany" by W. W. Robbins and T. E. Weier is more than an elementary text book for college students. It is a novel, stimulating and most interesting introduction to plant life. Over 500 illustrations aid in interpreting the descriptions and functions of tissues and organs of the plant body. The use of Phyllum in place of Division for the major classes o£ the plant kingdom is arbitrary and acceptable by some authorities. However, to designate the slime molds or Phyllum 9. Myxomy-cophyta as higher than the green, brown and red algae is subject to serious criticism. The tendency today is to class the slime molds as primitive forms of animal life. If accepted as plants the slime molds are usually placed after Phyllum 1. Scbi-zophyta ( fission plants). Mycologists would hesitate to consider slime molds as primitive forms of fungi. Under Chapter 4, headed: " The Plant Body of Seed Plants", there appear illustrations of blue- green algae; these are certainly misplaced under a chapter on seed plants. The text book, however, is excellent and recommended as good and easy reading for anyone interested in obtaining a clear and comprehensive understanding of the phenomena of plant life. G. L. WITTROCK. Well Known Scientists Capably Handle a Complex Subject AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY— Vol. 1: Principles of Agricultural Chemistry. Edited by Donald E. H. Frear. 812 pages, indexed. D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., New York, 1950. $ 9. Principles of Agricultural Chemistry is the first of two volumes planned to meet the needs of those interested in agricultural chemistry. This book is designed as a text book for the advanced student and as a general reference text for that host of workers in the field of agricultural chemistry and its closely related fields. In this volume the field of agricultural chemistry is divided into five parts and treated in twenty- four chapters. Each chapter is written by a specialist on that particular subject. Although there are many specialists in the various phases of agricultural chemistry, the editor has selected a group of exceedingly capable and well known scientists in the preparation of the volume. Despite the seemingly unrelated nature of many phases of agricultural chemistry, the authors have grouped their material into an orderly fashion under these five major divisions. For those individuals who are interested in going beyond the text book, each Chapter is well documented with references to the literature. Doubtless the specialists will find fault with certain portions of this book; however, as a general reference and text it will find wide use. The style of writing in several chapters is invigorating, STACY B. RANDLE, State Chemist N. J. Agricultural Experiment Sta. New Brunswick, N. J. Antibiotics Adequately Covered In This Volume ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY, and Related Subjects of Biochemistry. Vol. X. Edited by F. F. Nord. 533 pages, indexed. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, London, 1950. $ 7.50. The tenth volume maintains the usual fine standards of this series. The enzyme chapters are uniformly written in a flowing, readable style, without sacrifice of ample bibliographic reference. The subjects covered are " Blood Clotting and Related Processes" by Tage Astrup " Tryptophanase- Tryptophan Reaction" by Frank C. Happold, " Phosphatase Alcal-ine" by Jean Roche and Nguyen- Van 200 Thoai, " Synthesis of Disaccharides with Bacterial Enzymes" by W. Z. Hassid and M. Doudoroff, " Probleme des Citron-ensaurecyklus" by C. Martius and F. Lynen, " die Phytochemie des Schefels" by Theodor Bersin, and " Chemical Changes in the Harvested Tobacco Leaf." Part II. Chemical and Enzymic Conversion during Fermentation and Aging" by Walter G. Frankenburg. One of the " related subjects" is " Some Aspects of Streptomycin and Other Streptomyces Antibiotics", by Norman Brink and Karl Folkers, written as a compact summary of the chemistry of streptomycin, with only brief mention of Chloromycetin, aureomycin, and neomycin. The last chapter, by Claude Zobell, deals with assimilation of hydrocarbons by microorganisms. MABJORIE ANCHEL. Anthropocentric Emphasis in a Biological Textbook BIOLOGY. ITS HUMAN IMPLICATIONS. Garrett Hardin. 635 pages, illustrations, index. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1950. $ 5.00. Designed for the college student who will " never again be exposed to formal instruction" in biology, this text frankly stresses man rather than the amoeba. The section on The Measure of Man, a detailed treatment of anatomy and physiology, covers more than twice as much space as the following section on The Variety of Living Things in which all other forms, plant and animal, are crowded. The remainder of the book is given over to processes and characteristics integrating all life. This makes for a rather unconventional but nonetheless effective arrangement, particularly for the general student. The clear open style, humor rare in a textbook, and the almost cartoon- like illustrations make the work " readable" despite its high concentration of facts. The uninitiated student will be glad to find key technical terms clearly defined, with their derivations. But he may also find occasional rough going, if he has no more than an elementary knowledge of chemistry. Some biologists might object to the anthropocentric tenor of the entire book but, in view of its stated purpose, the emphasis seems justified. That there is no lack of humility is evident from the author's final statement: " The magnitude and immediacy of the problems facing us make an admiring backward glance at our progress seem indecent. In this uncertain world, the only honest glory we may hope to gain is that which may be ours if we attack our problems with clarity and high spirit." MARJORIE E. SWIFT, Heyden Chemical Corporation, Princeton, N. J. Histological Technique PRACTICAL SECTION CUTTING AND STAINING. E. C. Clayden. 129 pages, illustrated, indexed. Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., Brooklyn, N. Y. 1948. $ 2.75. Essentially a manual of methods for the hospital technician, this concisely written volume is divided into three parts: paraffin sections, frozen sections, and celloidin sections. Under each heading the author outlines the details of fixation, embedding and cutting, followed by schedules of staining procedures appropriate to each technique. The various steps are explained, so that a beginner may have some idea of why each step is necessary and how to avoid mistakes. VIRGINIA C. LITTAU. For Neophyte Foresters FOREST PRODUCTS. A. J. Panshin, E. S. Harrar, W. J. Baker & P. B. Proctor. 549 pages, illustrated, indexed, McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York. 1950. $ 6. The preface of " Forest Products" states: " A textbook may be likened to a pair of crutches; it assists the tyro until he can walk alone in his chosen field". Thus the authors have tacitly stated their objective and in compiling and condensing the subject matter of this broad field, they have adhered admirably to their goal. " Forest Products" should prove a valuable addition to the book shelf of all neophyte foresters. As a textbook it is unexcelled in its field. Coverage of the economics of forest utilization is adequate for a book of this type which introduces such a multiplicity of topics. Few, if any, important products of the forest are neglected. Throughout the book basic concepts are developed without indulging in detailed statistical studies. This fact makes 201 The World's Finest NEW Varieties Glorious color and thrilling new beauty for your garden may be found in the pages of Wayside Gardens' splendid catalog for autumn planting. • EXCITING NEW LILIES • OUTSTANDING NEW ROSES • BEAUTIFUL NEW PERENNIALS t' • HARDY FLOWERING SHRUBS as well as the world's largest selection of tulips, daffodils and other fall planting bulbs. DAFFODIL COLLECTION of JOHN EVELYN HYBRIDS The finest daffodils ever introduced. Huge white petaled beauties with deeply ruffled and widely flaring cups of soft canary yellow to deep gold. Perfectly hardy, these big, double- nosed bulbs bloom freely year after year, unaffected by the elements. For complete descriptions and true color illus- IS, see our new Fall Catalog. JOHN EVELYN HYBRID COLLECTION 1 EACH OF 6 VARIETIES ( 8 ) . . . . $ 3.75 3 EACH OF 8 VARIETIES ( 24) $ 10.00 N e w ROSES Planning a new rose garden — then by all means get our 1950 Fall Catalog. Among the more than 150 outstanding varieties offered are several " Special Collections" of choice roses at really attractive savings. Also described and illustrated are all the celebrated new roses as well as the " 1950 All- America Rose Selections." N e w SHRUBS In our Fall Catalog is a splendid array of handsome all purpose shrubs. There are exquisite flowering crabs, superior rhododendron hybrids, new 7' high scarlet flowered cydonia and many other worthwhile new shrubs. See Clarke's Giant, the largest and best lilac in existence and Esther Staley, the only true pink lilac. WAYSIDE'S " 1950 TULIP MIXTURE" Our famous " Tulip Mixture" contains only the very finest, top size, bloom filled, . imported tulips. This outstanding annual offer that cannot be duplicated elsewhere at double the prices shown, is designed to give you all the best varieties at unbelievably low cost. SUPERIOR BULBS Order these prize bulbs with confidence, they come to you with Wayside's ironclad guarantee of superior quality. WAYSIDE GARDENS' TULIP MIXTURE 50 bulbs...$ 6.50 1 250 bulbs.$ 28.00 100 bulbs...$ 12.00 11000 bulbs.$ 100.00 SEND FOR THE WORLD'S FINEST HORTICULTURAL BOOK- CATALOG 140 pages of true color illustrations and complete descriptions of the world's finest flowers, shrubs and hardy plants. Gardeners everywhere have come to rely on this valuable book as their source of ideas and the most worth-white garden subjects. Explicit cultural directions for each item. To be sure you get your copy, it is necessary to enclose with your request 504, coin or stamps, for postage and handling. 51 MENTOR AVE. MENTOR, OHIO IDEAL DARWIN ML1P Wttoricle IM Gajxlervr 202 the book very desirable for classroom use. It is the reviewer's opinion that the maximum amount of pertinent information has been crammed into the five hundred and twenty- six pages of " Forest Products". The excellent reference list at the end of each chapter facilitates complete pursuit of any selected field. DAVID P. THOMAS, University of Washington. Of Interest to Entomologists A CENTURY OF ENTOMOLOGY IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. Melville H. Hatch. 43 pages. Illustrated, indexed. University of Washington Press. Seattle, Wash. 1949. $ 1.50. This short treatise on the rise and growth of Entomology in the Pacific Northwest includes a description of the outstanding men and the more important books and insect collections prepared by them. Of greatest interest to most entomologists, perhaps, is the chapter dealing with the present status of entomology in the region comprising British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. P. P. PIRONE, Floriculture Brought Up To Date FLORICULTURE. Alex Laurie & Victor H. Ries. 525 pages, illustrated, indexed. McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York. 2nd edition 1950. $ 5. The second edition of Floriculture— Principles and Practices, by Laurie and Ries, is essentially the first edition with a few revisions. The largest revisions occur in the sections on insect and fungus pest control, which have been rewritten to include newer control measures with organic pesticides such as benzenehexa-chloride, chlordane, DDT, Parathion, Fermate, Parzate, Ceresan, and others. There have been some additions to the chapter on soils to include newer methods of watering and the use of corn cob mulches. The discussion of green manures has also been completely revised. Information on vermiculite, chemical control of lawn weeds and pests, propagation by leaf bud cuttings, starting annuals, propagation and use of perennials, and gravel culture has also been added. Also, to bring the first edition UD to date, some minor changes have been made in the sections on chrysanthemums, broad leafed evergreens, hardiness, pH, African violets, and soil preparation. This book is general in its coverage and is, therefore, less subject to the general revisions necessary in a more technical book that goes deeper into a specific field. ARTHUR BING, N. Y. State College of Agriculture. A First- Class Reference On Annuals ANNUALS. Roy Hay. 240 pages, illustrated, indexed. Macmillan, New York. Revised edition 1950. $ 2.50. " Annuals" by Roy Hay is an interesting book, being a revision of the author's first published edition of 1937. It is divided into two sections. The first chapter is devoted to " definitions, distribution and development". Mr. Roy here points out that many of the plants described in his book are biennial or perennial in nature but are recommended to be grown as annuals. Another chapter is devoted to annuals that have been lost to cultivation and apparently there are many of merit. Methods of growing and the many ways in which these garden favorites may be put to use complete part one of this work. Part two comprises a comprehensive list of all the worthwhile kinds. It gives the common names of all those described, the botanical names and their derivation. Useful information of a cultural character is also included. The book is well illustrated with numerous black and white and colored plates. I consider " Annuals" an excellent reference work. EDWIN BECKETT, Berkshire Garden Center, Stockbridge, Mass. Conventional Text PLANT ECOLOGY. W. B. McDougall. 234 pages, 118 illustrations. Indexed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia. Fourth edition, 1949. $ 4. As a fourth edition, this volume, even though stated on the title page to be " thoroughly revised," contains no significant improvements over the third edition. In addition, there are no fundamental differences in organization or content, other than literature references, from the first edition of two decades ago. As a textbook of university plant ecology, this work will probably hold its place in conventional courses where a relatively brief text is needed. 203 Notes, News and Comment Dr. Merrill Honored. At a special ceremony in Paris, on May 7, the Societe Nationale d' Acclimatation de France conferred its Geoffroy Saint Hilaire medal on Dr. E. D. Merrill, member of the Board of Managers of the New York Botanical Garden. Graduation Excercises. Graduation exercises for students in the Two- Year Courses at the New York Botanical Garden were held on Thursday evening, June 22, 1950, with G. L. Wittrock, Assistant Curator of Education, in charge of the program. Henry De la Montagne, Assistant Director of the Garden, presented certificates in the Science Course to Ferdinand A. Czwaczka, Clifford H. Howell, Frank M. Wright, Edna May Wright, Dominic Ziccardi; in the Practical Gardening Course to John J. Blum, Howard L. Campion, Walter Jamroga, also to Mr. Czwaczka and Mr. & Mrs. Wright. R. R. Fenska, Secretary- Treasurer of the Westchester County Tree Protective Association, delivered the address of the evening. It appears elsewhere on page 193 of this issue of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden. T. H. Everett Continues as Horticulturist, Louis Politi Named Head Gardener. To expand the horticultural activities of the New York Botanical Garden and render greater horticultural service to members, students and the general public, it was found expedient to create again two distinct positions, that of Horticulturist and that of Head Gardener. Acccordingly, on July 1, 1950, T. H. Everett was relieved of his responsibilities as Head Gardener, these being assumed by Louis P. Politi. Mr. Everett continues as Horticulturist. Under the new arrangement, Mr. Everett is responsible for the planning of the general landscape effects and for the scope and character of the living plant collections. He will interpret horticulture to the general public and will develop the horticultural displays and activities of the New York Botanical Garden. Mr. Everett will also supervise the student gardeners' program which has recently been resumed at the New York Botanical Garden. Mr. Politi has full charge of the propagation and cultivation of the living plant collections and the supervision of the work of all the gardeners. Lectures. On June 13, Dr. P. P. Pirone lectured on " Tree Care" before the members of the Garden Club of Great Barrington, Mass., at the home of William Felton Barrett. On June 19th, Mr. E. J. Alexander spoke to the Gardeners of New Canaan, an affiliate garden club, on " Wild Flowers for our Gardens" Dr. Bassett Maguire presented the film, " Rediscovery of Arundinaria Schomburg-hii" to the guests of Mr. H. R. Kunhardt, Jr., at the Indian Harbor Yacht Club, Greenwich, Conn., on June 29. Meetings. Dr. William J. Robbins lectured on " Hybrid Nutritional Requirements" before the Conference on Heer-osis at Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, on the 19th of the month. Dr. P. P. Pirone attended the Arboricultural Field Day held at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. on June 21. Bobbink & Atkins " GARDEN GEMS" for your Garden Library Build your garden with the help of this outstanding catalog. In it are described and illustrated in color the best of the New and Old- fashioned Roses; Unusual Evergreen Shrubs and Vines; Azaleas and Rhododendrons; Magnolias; Lilacs and many other Flowering Shrubs; all the novelty and old favorite Perennial Flowers and Ground Covers, and a host of other rare and unusual " Garden Gems"; designed to help you plan and plant your garden. Free east of the Mississippi; 35 cents elsewhere. Customers of record receive their copies automatically. Visitors are always welcome at our nurseries located about nine miles from the New Jersey side of the Lincoln and Holland Tunnels and George Washington Bridge. Less than thirty minutes from central New York. Bobbink & Atkins Rose Growers and Nurserymen 401 Paterson Ave., East Rutherford, N. J. 204 Representation at VII International Botanical Congress: Dr. Donald P. Rogers represented the New York Botanical Garden and Oberlin College and served as alternate of the Mycological Society of America. Dr. H. W. Rickett represented the Torrey Botanical Club, American Society of Plant Taxonomists, served as alternate for the Dept. of Botany, University of Pennsylvania, and Soc-iedad Botanica de Mexico, and cast the votes of the Botanical Society of America. Dr. H. N. Moldenke, in addition to being the official delegate of the American Plant Life Society and the New York Academy of Science, represented fourteen institutions and special groups from Mexico, Central and South American countries. These included Jardin Botan-ico de Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute de Biologia, both of Mexico City, Mexico, and Concepcion, Chile; Estacion Experimental Agronomica, Santiago de las Vegas, and Ministerio de Agricultura, Cuba; Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Ecuador ; Universidad de Narino, Columbia; and Museo Botanico de la Faculta de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Na-cional de Cordoba, Argentina. Just as the August issue was going to press, air mail from Stockholm brought word that Dr. Rogers was made Secretary of the Special Committee for Fungi, and that Dr. Rickett served as a member of the General Committee on Nomenclature, of the Editorial Committee of the International Rules, and of the Special Committee for Nomenclature of Plants in Cultivation. Dr. W. H. Camp, until recently a member of the Garden's staff, was made Secretary of the last named committee. Modernization of the parts of the rules dealing with hybrid plants and with plants in cultivation are among the real accomplishments of the Section in Nomenclature of the Seventh International Botanical Congress. Visitors. Dr. H. B. Woodruff and Dr. Dale Harris, of Merck & Company, Rahway, N. J., and Dr. H. M. McGuire of the Lily Research Laboratories visited Dr. Robbins and toured the laboratories on June 14. The following week Dr. Ismael Velez, professor of botany of Polytechnic Institute, San German, Puerto Rico, paid his respects to Dr. Robbins. On June 27, Dr. E. C. T. Holsinger, botanist, of Columbo, Ceylon, called on Dr. Robbins and visited the laboratories. The same day, Mr. Edwin T. de Bechtel, Mrs. J. Henry Harper, Mrs. Ira Haupt and Mrs. Frederick S. Moseley, Jr., had luncheon with Dr. Robbins. Other visitors to the New York Botanical Garden during June included: Leonard Buck and C. Austin Buck, Far Hills, N. J.; W. E. Th. Ingwerson, East Grins-ted, Sussex, England; R. E. Bottomley, Milf ord, Conn.; G. F. Woerner, Stumpp & Walter Co., New York City; Marguerite Palmer, Garden Editor, Houston Press, Houston, Texas; J. E. Gunckel, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J.; B. Schwartz, Library of Congress Washington, D. C.; Florence E. Day, Metropolitan Museum; Monroe Bricker, University of Miami; Werner & Lillie Fayet Hunsche, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Marguerite Ste. Marie and Louise Allard of the Jardin Botanique, Montreal; Marie Helene Goutreau, Canadian Horticultural Society; A. C. Smith, Smithsonian Institute; L. R. Freese, University of Houston; Herman Silva, Michigan State College; Dr. Margaret Fulford, University of Cincinnati; Maxwell S. Doty, Woods Hole, Mass. Thirty- two members of the Maplewood Garden Club, of which Mrs. Hugh T. Morgan is president, were conducted through the greenhouse and rock garden by Mr. G. L. Wittrock. Population and Plants The population of the United States has already reached the figure of 150,- 000,000 that had been expected by demographers about 25 years later, according to Joseph S. Davis, Director of the Research Staff of the Food Research Institute at Stanford University. His statistics showing how all predictions and theories of the earlier part of the century have been upset are given in the Institute's War- Peace Pamphlet No. 12, " The Population Upsurge in the United States" ($ 1). By ignoring the actual trend, the nation is not prepared to take care of a continuing increase of this magnitude, he contends. Since all food is derived ultimately from plants, the food alone for the unpredicted extra millions is a problem of concern to botanists as well as producers. THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Officers JOSEPH R. SWAN, Chairman CHARLES B. HARDING, President FREDERICK S. MOSELEY, JR., Vice- President ARTHUR M. ANDERSON, Treasurer HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE, Secretary Elective Managers REV. R. I. GANNON, S J . ROBERT H. MONTGOMERY MRS. ELON HUNTINGTON FRANCIS E. POWELL, JR. HOOKER MRS. HAROLD I. PRATT SIDNEY LANIER WILLIAM J. ROBBINS MRS. ALBERT D. LASKER EDMUND W. SINNOTT CLARENCE MCK. LEWIS CHAUNCEY STILLMAN THOMAS LEWIS OAKLEIGH L. THORNE E. D. MERRILL Ex- Officio Managers WILLIAM O'DWYER, Mayor of the City of New York MAXIMILIAN MOSS, President of the Board of Education ROBERT MOSES, Park Commissioner DOUGLAS H. ALLEN SHERMAN BALDWIN WILLIAM FELTON BARRETT HOWARD BAYNE EDWIN DE T. BECHTEL LEONARD J. BUCK HENRY F. DU PONT Appointive Managers By the Torrey Botanical Club: RUTHERFORD PLATT. By Columbia University: MARSTON T. BOGERT, CHARLES W. BALLARD, SAM F. TRELEASE. THE STAFF WILLIAM J. ROBBINS, P H . D . , SC. D. HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE J. MARK KERANS, LL. B. H. A. GLEASON, P H . D. P. P. PIRONE, P H . D . THOMAS H. EVERETT, N. D. HORT. H. W. RICKETT, P H . D. HAROLD N. MOLDENKE, P H . D. 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Contributor | New York Botanical Garden |
Date | 1950-08 |
Description-Table Of Contents | THE ROSE As A MOTIF IX THE DECORATIVE ARTS; GARDEN RED CURRANTS Axr; THE WHITE PINE BLISTER-RUST; WATER RELVITOX OF PLAnTS; PROGRESS IX HORTICULTURAL TECHNIQUES; ROSE-GROWERS' DAY—JUNE 1950. |
Format | application/pdf |
Format-Extent | 51 v. : ill. ; 25 cm. |
Identifier | 0885-4165 |
Language | eng |
Publisher | Bronx : New York Botanical Garden, 1900-1950 |
Relation-Is Part Of | Journal of the New York Botanical Garden : v. 1, no. 1-v. 51, no. 612 |
Relation-IsVersionOfURI | http://opac.nybg.org/record=b1104879 |
Rights | http://www.nybg.org/library/ |
Subject | Plants--Periodicals; Gardening--Periodicals; Plants, Cultivated--Periodicals; New York Botanical Garden--Periodicals. |
Title | Journal of the New York Botanical Garden |
Volume, Number | Vol. 51, no. 608 |
Type | text |
Transcript | JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN AUGUST 1950 IN T H I S ISSUE: THE ROSE IN ARTS AND CRAFTS ( DEN RED CURRANTS AND 1ITE PINE BLISTER- RUST \ TATER RELATION OF PLANTS HORTICULTURAL rECHNIQUES IMPROVE > E ('. ROWERS' DAY — 1950 REVIEWS AND NEWS PAGES 181— 204 VOL. 51 No. 608 ENTS Si. 50 A YEAR HARDY WATER- LILIES in the pool at the New York Botanical Garden THE ROYAL WATER- LILY Victoria regia is a member of the extensive aquatic family, Nymphaeaceae, to which the hardy water- lily, Nymphaea marliacea rosea, illustrated on the front cover, belongs. But the former is many times the size of the latter. The flower of the royal water- lily, similar in shape to that of the hardy water- lily, is one or more feet in diameter. The leaves are gigantic, some measuring six to seven feet in diameter, but their texture is delicate. It is the peculiar structure of the under side which makes the leaves so strong and bouyant, sufficiently bouyant to support more than one hundred pounds— provided that the weight is evenly distributed. The lower surface is ribbed from the point at which the stalk is attached to the circumference, and also cross- ribbed, parallel to the circumference. These stout ribs are made up of hollow, air- filled compartments. Victoria regia is now being grown again at the New York Botanical Garden and may be seen in house No. 9 of the Conservatory, A REMINDER— that throughout the year the keen plantsman, amateur or professional, will always find something of interest at the New York Botanical Garden TABLE OF CONTENTS AUGUST 1950 THE ROSE AS A MOTIF IN THE DECORATIVE ARTS GARDEN RED CURRANTS AND THE WHITE PINE BLISTER- RUST Walter H. Snell WATER RELATION OF PLANTS P. W. Zimmerman PROGRESS IN HORTICULTURAL TECHNIQUES R. R. Fenska ROSE- GROWERS' DAY— JUNE 1950 REVIEWS OF RECENT BOOKS NOTES, NEWS, AND COMMENTS fohn Kent niton 181 187 191 193 196 199 203 The Journal is published monthly by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York 58, N. Y. Printed in U. S. A. Entered as Second Class Matter, January 28, 1936, at the Post Office at New York, N. Y., under the Act of August 24, 1912. Annual subscription $ 1.50. Single copies 15 cents. JOURNAL of THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN DOROTHY EBEL HANSELL, Editor VOL. 51 AUGUST 1950 No. 608 The Rose as a z^ fCotif in the ' Decorative oArts John Kent Tilton, Director Scalamandre Museum of Textiles THOUGH little is known of the very early history of the rose and who were the first people to cultivate it, it is generally accepted that the rose is one of the oldest of all plants to have been held in high esteem and to have been given symbolic significance. France and England fell under the enchantment of the rose when crusaders brought it from Asia during the middle ages. It was grown in royal gardens for its beauty and fragrance and in the monastery gardens for its medicinal and culinary properties. It attained importance in sacred and secular ceremonies becoming, for instance, the ecclesiastical emblem of perfection and being worn as a cherished ornament by women on festive occasions. The rose also achieved fame as the heraldic bearings of opposing armies in a civil war that nearly rent a nation asunder. During the Wars of The Roses in the 15th century, when the House of York with its insignia of a white rose fought with the House of Lancaster which carried the red rose on its shield, the flower became firmly established in English heraldry. The succeeding House of Tudor consolidated the two colors by adopting both for its coat- of- arms, and it became known as the " Tudor Rose". It was made the national flower of England. When the early Christians appropriated it as one of the symbols of their faith, the rose was assured an everlasting place in the decorative arts. The followers of Christianity, in order to escape persecution and death, hid themselves in the labyrinth catacombs of Rome. There on the stone walls they expressed in crude mural decoration, carving or painting, the symbolic emblems of their religion. They did not dare actually to depict in realistic forms their teachings. Instead, they adopted a secret code in which the rose was a featured symbol, signifying charity and Christian love among fellow men as well as being the symbol of the Garden of Heaven and God's Heavenly Grace. 181 182 Throughout the Gothic era, the rose flourished in both ecclesiastical and secular art as a highly stylized floral motif. The Italians preferred the trefoil or quatrefoil rose in both carved and painted ornament, while the English selected the cinquefoil. This discrimination in the usage of the number of petals is a point well worth remembering. The very name, " rose window", in Gothic church architecture is significant of the deriva- Flowers are realistically portrayed in this lampas, with brocaded satin insert, which was woven by Philippe de la Salle in France in the third quarter of the 18th century. ( From the collection of Scala-mandre Museum of Textiles). Wallpaper " Les Deux Pigeons" was made by Jean Baptiste Re'veillon and printed from woodblocks in France, circa 1785. ( Courtesy of the Cooper Union Museum of Arts and Decoration). 183 " Courtiers with Roses" — a tapestry presumably woven for Charles VII of France. The rose was his emblem and the red, white and green of the striped background, his colors. Franco- Flemish ( Tournai), 15th century. ( Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.) tion of the term, because of its circular form in which the intricate mullions simulate floral petals radiating out to the perimeter. The " rosette" was another popular treatment of the rose as a motif in which it was stylized in geometric formations of circles, squares and octagons. The " rosette" first appeared in the weaving of Chinese silk textiles during the Yuan or Mongol dynasty of the 14th century. Roses were among the multitude of flowers represented in the " mille fleurs" tapestries of the Middle Ages. They were woven in the far- famed Unicorn tapestries, made for Anne of Brittany to celebrate her marriage to Louis XII of France in 1499. The Aubusson and Gobelins tapestries of the 18th century were profusely embellished with roses. Artists during the long period of the Italian Renaissance broke away from the traditional symbolism of the Gothic, and their floral motifs assumed naturalistic forms. We find in their treatment of design in tex- 184 tiles a symmetrical and triple arrangement of roses in classic urns. The great artists of the period, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci among others, often portrayed the rose in their paintings. When the Renaissance evolved into the Baroque of the 17th century, the floral motifs assumed forms considerably larger than found in nature. In France, the 18th century produced designers, painters and weavers who have never been surpassed. Such famous men as LeBrun, Berain, Marot, Boucher and Meissonier created designs for furniture, textiles, wall decoration and the accessories in art. Watteau and Fragonard depicted romantic garden scenes in their paintings. Revel and La Salle excelled in textile designing and weaving. In all the decorative arts created by these talented men, roses were predominant. The religious significance of the rose had long been discarded and the poets and painters acclaimed it as the symbol of romance, wisdom and beauty. The floral designs were woven in textiles in a naturalistic manner that had not previously been achieved. The polychrome brocades and lampases gave the semblance of having the flowers painted upon their surfaces rather than woven into them. The era, while elaborate in its decoration, was always graceful. Wallpaper came into fashion during the latter part of the 18th century, and it is to France that the credit is largely due, although the English printed excellent wallpaper in the same period. As far back as the end of the 17th century, Jean Papillon Pere was printing paper. He was the first to make the patterns, printed from carved wood- blocks, match in repeating units when the sheets of paper were joined. Jean Bap- * ~ ^ B S K I S E J .' i^ CEaff'sAHOKS t'ste Reveillon, however, excelled him. It was he who first joined his sheets in one continuous length before printing his designs. This he accom-t C y V j W B i w ^ ' ife||- 3v'"' C£ SBiMBB plished just prior to the French •^ m^ ftSKifW. wtaMT^ Hr SEW Revolution. Paper was not A monochrome rose design printed in red on chintz from wood blocks, in England during the third quarter of the 18th century. ( From the collection of Scalamandre Museum of Textiles.) 185 Roses and other flowers decorate a tole tray. Hand painted in England, circa 1820. ( Courtesy of the Cooper Union Museum of Arts and Decoration.) manufactured in continuous length until the 19th century. Reveillon was as important in printing " papier peints" as Oberkampf was in printing " loiles du Jouy". Only the most talented artists were employed. In fact, Huet designed for both. The wallpapers resembled paintings of still life, and roses were the prime favorites of the flowers delineated. Roses lavishly adorned the gay English chintzes and the French toiles of the 18th and 19th centuries. Every conceivable variety of flower was utilized in the design. The highly decorative japanned metalware, better known by its French name, " tole", was another medium for floral decoration. Thomas Allgood who lived in Pontypool, England, in the second half of the 17th century, conceived the idea of molding thin metal plates into such useful and ornamental household utensils as trays, tea and coffee urns, vases and cache- pots. The decorations were all hand painted with an enamel made from coal by- products which, when fired, became impervious to heat and moisture. The artists were often those who had worked in porcelain potteries and this accounts for the similarity of the tole decoration to that of chinaware. Nosegays and delicate swags of roses were the motifs most copied. Tole ware was introduced in France during the Directoire period, when it was substituted for their silverware which had been melted down in the Revolution. The vogue reached America in the early 19th century. The rose motifs are needlepoint in this piece of Belgium lace, probably Bruges, 19th century. It is a combination of needlepoint and bobbin. ( Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.) 186 Stencil- work, while popular in Europe, was especially so in America, because of its inexpensiveness and the little skill required in cutting the stencils and applying the colors. Housewives and their daughters stenciled tables, chairs, boxes and trays. Itinerant artists traveled about the countryside. For their board and a nominal fee, they would stencil the walls of the parlour and, perhaps, the master bedroom. The decoration was usually in the form of borders in which the rose was entwined with other garden flowers or stylized in rosettes. Lambert Hitchcock, New England's rush bottom chair manufacturer, opened his factory in 1826 at what is now Riverton, Connecticut. His family applied the paint, usually black, and stenciled gold decoration on the splats. Swags, festoons and cornucopias of flowers abundant with roses were the preferred figures of ornamentation. When spring came, Hitchcock would set out with a wagon load of " fancy chairs" to sell to the farmers' wives. At that time, they were considered inexpensive, but today an original Hitchcock chair brings a good price in the antique shops. The making of delicate needlepoint or bobbin laces required skill and infinite patience. Each country developed various types of lace distinctive to itself. The name " rosepoint" has always been misleading, since originally the patterns contained no roses. However, among the lace authorities of today, there is a tendency to include the 19th century Brussel laces, in which the rose is featured, with the " rosepoint". The French call it " point de gaze". Wrought iron is another medium in which infinite skill is required in modeling the delicate tracery of its designs. The elaborate wrought iron grills and gates of the 18th century were frequently ornamented with floral motifs, and the rose was represented by a naturalistic portrayal. Good huswifes in sommer will save their owne seedes, against the next yeere, as occasion needes. One seede for another, to make an exchange, with fellowlie neighbourhood seemeth not strange. In harvest time, harvest folke, servants and all, should make all togither good cheere in the hall: And fill out the black boule of bleith to their song, and let them be merie all harvest time long. Now looke up to Godward, let tong never cease in thanking of him for his mightie encrease: Accept my good will, for a proofe go and trie : the better thou thrivest, the gladder am I. August Husbandrie, from " Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry" by Thomas Tusser 187 Qarden Red Qurrants and White ' Pine " Blister- Rust Spare cultivated red currants— they are sufficiently resistant to this fungus By Walter H. Snell COMPARED with the chestnut blight, the control of the blister- rust of white pine is a simple matter because the fungus causing the disease of pine cannot be spread from pine to pine but must pass a part of its life history upon currants and gooseberries ( Ribes) before reinfecting the pine. As demonstrated in an earlier article by the writer*, the spores formed on the pine can be carried by the wind at least 300 miles to Ribes, but the spores on the Ribes which reinfect the pine are the weak link in the chain in that they can be carried only relatively short distances. Therefore, the removal of Ribes from the vicinity of white pines provides a comparatively simple means of control of the disease. Paying no attention to precise biological details, it may be said that the different kinds of Ribes vary in their infectability or what has been called the " hitting power" with regard to the pine. From the very beginning, it has been recognized that cultivated English black currants are dangerous to pine at least up to a mile and a quarter and consequently they have been removed from gardens in all the eastern states where white pine is grown. All other species of currants and gooseberries, wild or cultivated, have for the most part been considered able to jeopardize pines only at distances inside of 1,000 feet, except under unusual conditions of terrain, etc. Over the past 35 years, the public has cooperated willingly in the protection of the pine by the removal of the cultivated black currants and the wild Ribes of all sorts, but it has never become reconciled to the compulsory removal of even a small row of measley, uncared for, garden red currants. This writer has never believed that cultivated currants and gooseberries were a source of danger to white pine. Here's how. One day, in my earliest blister- rust work in 1916, ahead of me up a road in Swansea, Mass., I saw a blotch of foliage decidedly bright orange in color. It was a half- acre of English black currants with the leaves completely infected with the blister- rust fungus from diseased pines across the road. Next to this patch was a half- acre of cultivated red currants, upon which I could find only scattered blister- rust infection spots— a violent contrast with the condition of the English blacks, bright green against orange. Next to these was a half- acre of cultivated gooseberries, upon which I could find no blister- rust infection at all. Therefore, even considering the known varia- * See May 1950 issue of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden. 188 bility within certain limits of the susceptibility of garden red currants to the blister- rust fungus, I have always insisted that these currants constituted no danger to white pine, at any distance from them. It was not, however, until a third eradication of red currants in the Lake George area of New York about 1935 raised a violent storm of protest that I was able to attempt to prove my thesis. My first approach was to try to find pines that could be considered infected by spores from cultivated red currants. I looked up every situation of which I could learn in the Adirondack region, where there were red currants within a reasonable distance of the pines. I located 29 cases, in most of which the red currants were within 200 feet. In 28 of these cases, pines were infected. Red currants were nearby but so were wild gooseberries— the red currants, therefore, clearly not with certainty culpable. In one case, I found red currants within 100 feet of cankered pines and no wild Ribes upon which I could place the blame. Of the 29 cases, one was shown me definitely for the purpose of confounding me. Upon casual inspection, it certainly appeared able to blow my ideas sky high! This was Case 47, the old " Ab Wrisley Place" near Lewis in Essex County, New York, an abandoned farm with 7j4 acres of planted pines surrounding an old row of 12 large red currant bushes. These pines were certainly heavily infected, nearly 45% out of the total of about 8,000 trees. It looked as if the red currants had me. Careful analysis of the situation proved interesting, however. Studying the infection conditions by 15- foot quadrats, I found a strange situation— that the percentage of infection was lowest near the red currants and became increasingly higher as one proceeded in any direction to the periphery of the plantation. Conversely, the percentage of infection of the pines was highest in the northern corner of the plot and decreased regularly from that point to the other portions of the plot. I then noticed a few small wild gooseberries about 6 inches high right at the edge of this northern corner. By digging around in the ground, I found that these small bushes were sprouts from roots many years old and then later learned, from the blister- rust personnel in the county, that large bushes had been removed from this precise spot two or three years before. I was happy, again! My next approach was to study similar white pine- red currant associations in the hardwood region of western New York, where the pines were planted ones and not native. In 9 of the 38 cases studied, the red currants were within 6 inches to 100 feet and the pines were not infected. In one case, a planting of 1,000 trees 350 feet to 800 feet from a block of over 2,700 red currants was entirely uninfected. In 12 more cases, blocks of pine, mostly of 500 to 2,000 trees 50 to 900 feet from red currants, were entirely uninfected. The remaining cases of this group were similar but not quite so spectacular. In many of the 72 cases of pines near red currants, 5 cases studied in the 189 southern New England states and 67 cases in New York State, the pines were not infected at all. In all but one case where the pines were infected, wild gooseberries were found to be as near as or nearer than the currants. As mentioned previously, in this one case where the pines were infected, no wild gooseberries could be found anywhere around. It should be added that a few cases have been reported by others in various parts of the country, in which the infection of the pines was supposed to have come from red currants, but if these few infestations were as reported, it is an exceedingly small number out of the hundreds of thousands of associations of white pine and red currants that have existed over the eastern United States during the past 40 years. Consequently, it has long been the writer's contention that red currants constitute no threat to white pine and that there is no need of eradicating them to any distance from white pine. Over the entire period of study of the white pine blister- rust, there has been the question as to why cultivated black currants threaten pine from a distance of a mile and a quarter, wild gooseberries up to less than 1,000 feet in most circumstances, and garden currants not at all. With the idea that it might possibly be the volume of the spores produced on the Ribes that infect the pine and a question of a minimum volume of spores to bring about one canker on pine, a series of rather intricate studies was made along these lines and on three groups of Ribes: ( 1) the generally heavily-infected cultivated black currants; ( 2) wild gooseberries; ( 3) cultivated red currants. On hundreds of bushes of each kind, the total number of leaves was counted, the areas measured, and the total leaf- area per bush calculated. While it was found that large red and black currant bushes would have 20,000 leaves and wild gooseberries 50,000 leaves, a good average for all of them would be 4,000 or 5,000. The figures obtained were calculated for the common unit of a row of 6 cultivated red currants and a comparable pasture grouping of wild gooseberries. A study was then made of the pathological conditions of the three kinds of Ribes in order to get a representative situation. This involved the measurement of the areas of thousands and thousands of infection spots. For future calculations, a figure of 77%, which is low, was taken for the black currants, 20% as a good average for a wild gooseberry bush, and 2.3% for the red currants, the highest found in any case and much higher than the average infection of any red currant. Next, in a long and laborious study of infected leaves under low- power microscopes, the numerical production of telia and sporidia on the three kinds of Ribes was obtained. Then, using all the data of total areas of leaves on the three groups of Ribes, the percentages of infection, and the number of sporidia typically produced per unit of infection, a possible total number of sporidia for the various lots of Ribes was obtained. These figures came out approximately as follows: over two million millions for 190 the black currants, over 260 thousand millions for the wild gooseberries, and over 33 thousand millions for the red currants— a ratio of roughly 70: 8: 1. Whether or not these figures are a valid basis of judgment, it just so happens that if black currants are dangerous to white pine up to a distance of 6,600 feet, and wild gooseberries are dangerous to a distance of 750 feet, then these figures and this ratio suggest a dangerous distance for cultivated red currants of something under 100 feet. And all this, mind you, with the entire series of calculations " loaded" in favor of the red currants, because of the low percentage of infection assigned for the black currants and a much higher percentage of infection used for the red currants than I ever found to be the case. The final study made of the relation of red currants to the blister- rust of pine was to attempt to obtain a threshold or what I called the " quantum" relationship between the spore production on the red currants and the infection of the pine— in other words, some idea of the number of sporidia produced to result in a single canker on a pine tree. Fortunately, from my earliest studies of a large number of infested pine stands in the Adiron-dacks, I had data for every area upon the Ribes population— kinds, number and sizes of bushes within and without the plots— as well as data upon the pathological conditions of the pine. By combining these quantitative Ribes data with the figures and calculations of the study just discussed, I was able to make approximations of a threshold or quantum relationship. As would be expected from the normal variability of conditions in nature, there was a wide range in the threshold figures obtained. They ran from a low of 580 million to a maximum of 79 billion sporidia to effectuate a single canker on pine. It can be seen by the simplest sort of mathematics that even if one chooses to disregard the highest figures obtained, there is not much latitude to allow for infection of pines in any area from the really meagre production of pine- infecting spores on the red currants. It would appear that red currants cannot be considered dangerous to white pines for the simple reason that they are so resistant to the blister- rust fungus that they cannot produce a sufficient number of spores under any conditions. I started out young with the idea that red currants are never sufficiently heavily infected to need to be pulled out of gardens. For 20 years more, my casual observations only strengthened this conclusion. And these studies discussed here, whatever may be said of their completeness of coverage, their finality or their scientific validity, certainly substantiate my contentions in the direction of sparing the cultivated red currants. • * • « = » 191 Water Relation of ( Plants And Factors Affecting Conservation of Moisture By P. W. Zimmerman Boyce Thompson Institute of Plant Research, Inc. SOIL moisture is probably the most important single factor which regulates the growth of plants. There are many other factors which may cause failures— insect pests, diseases, frost damage, and fertilizers. From the personal standpoint, there is no substitute for experience; from the standpoint of the plant, there is no substitute for water. The amount of water available for plants is regulated by soil type, depth of soil, soil management and rainfall or artificial watering. Sandy soils have low water- holding capacity. Such soils are adapted for rose growing only where rainfall is plentiful or can be supplemented by watering. Soils which contain clay are relatively retentive to moisture. This may, under certain conditions, work to the disadvantage of the plants. Sandy soil can give up more than 80 per cent of its moisture to growing plants, whereas clay may hold back as much as 40 per cent of its total moisture. That is, plants may wilt in clay soil while considerable moisture is present. The ideal type of soil for most plants is loam, which is a mixture containing sufficient sand to provide good drainage, sufficient clay to insure adequate water- holding capacity, organic matter and ample reserve supplies of nutrient elements. We should not ignore the importance of organic matter within the soil. This material plays an important role in plant nutrition, increases water- holding capacity of the soil and improves the physical condition of all types of soil. In farm practice, organic matter resulting from cover crops helps to prevent erosion. Approximately one inch of rainfall a week is necessary to satisfy shallow- rooted crops. Shrubs and trees can get along on slightly less. This rainfall is most beneficial if it comes between May and September. In 1949 we experienced a near drought during those months. In fact, the drought was serious enough to restrict the use of water in the New York City area throughout the winter. That brings us to the question of how to conserve moisture in the garden. Mulching of the soil is one of the most effective means for holding moisture, and it can be accomplished in a number of ways. Perhaps the simplest method is to maintain a well cultivated, loose layer of soil on the surface of the ground. This layer can be repeatedly renewed by cultivation after each rain. If the soil is well supplied with organic matter, a loose layer will be particularly effective for preventing evaporation of moisture. There are many mulching materials available, for example, sawdust, 192 ground coconut shells, buckwheat hulls, straw, and coffee grounds. In recent years, I have had a number of favorable reports from the use of sawdust for mulching purposes. It must be remembered, however, that when cellulose material is added to the soil, bacteria working thereon will rob the plants of nitrates. It is advisable to use additional fertilizer when straw, sawdust or buckwheat hulls are worked into the soil. As soon as the mulching material begins to decay, it adds to the organic matter in the soil and eventually improves the fertility and water- holding power. Plants absorb and then transpire water. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from leaves and other organs and is the most generally recognized of all processes in plants. Many common practices are based on this recognition as, for example, watering of house plants, use of irrigation systems, wrapping of cut flowers and waxing or placing nursery stock in wet sphagnum moss. Transpiration is by no means limited to leaves but may occur from the surface of any organ. Loss of water from fruit, tubers and roots is due to transpiration. The leaves, however, have the largest evaporating surface and from them occurs the greatest amount of transpiration in the growing plant. Water composes the bulk of growing plants. Young tissues may contain 95 per cent or more of water by weight. Older tissues usually contain 60 to 75 per cent water. Transpiration rates also vary with the species. On record we find that a sunflower plant four feet high lost one quart of water on a hot day. The same plant lost 123 gallons for the growing season. A ragweed lost 140 gallons for the season. One acre of corn ( 6,000 plants) lost 324,000 gallons for the season. The rate of transpiration is influenced by both internal and external factors. The principal internal factors are: ( 1) the opening and closing of stomates; ( 2) the concentration of water vapor in the internal air spaces in comparison with that of the atmosphere; ( 3) the temperature of the leaf; ( 4) the water content of plant tissue; ( 5 the occurrence of colloidal gels which have high water- holding capacity; and ( 6) the cutinized epidermal walls in some plants. Some of the most important external factors influencing the rate of transpiration are: ( 1) the energy of the sunlight as it affects the internal temperature of the leaf in relation to external temperature and also the opening and closing of stomates; ( 2) the temperature of the atmosphere and the soil; ( 3) the relative humidity of the atmosphere; ( 4) the water conditions in the soil; and ( 5) the wind or movement of air. Wind prevents the accumulation of moist air around the surface of the leaf. Evaporation of moisture from the leaf exerts a pull on the water column in the veins of the leaves, stems and roots. It tends to create a partial vacuum and that, together with root pressure, aids the plant in taking water from the soil. 193 Excessive transpiration causes wilting, if the water lost exceeds that taken in by the roots. This frequently occurs when the aerial parts of the plant are out of balance with the root system. Top pruning of transplants is practiced in order to bring about a balance with the reduced root system. Tissue development in the growing regions of plants depends on an adequate water supply in the cells. Enlargement of cells ceases when transpiration exceeds the water supply. Wilted plants either cannot manufacture food or the rate of photosynthesis is greatly reduced. If such retardation of processes takes place during the early life of many species of annual plants, they may not fully recover when subsequently supplied with an abundance of water. Similar results may be expected also with roses, though the effects may not be so pronounced. Therefore, a sufficient supply of water to prevent wilting is essential in the management of rose gardens. ' Progress in Horticultural Techniques R. R. Fenska J UST how much the early horticulturists of Asia Minor knew about the technique of hybridization and cross- breeding of plants, we do not know. Early man kept much of his knowledge secret. Botanists were linked with the medicine- man! Linnaeus, the Swedish scientist, was of the opinion that the different kinds of plants never changed. It was not until the latter half of the 19th century that Charles Darwin ( 1809- 82) and Gregor Mendel ( 1822- 84) gave us the doctrine respecting the origin of species from more primitive forms and the Mendelian law of heredity in plants. Both men supported their theories with a great mass of facts from nature. While these investigators gave us some fundamental principles of plant development, they did not complete the job. For instance, the well known Macintosh apple first appeared on a single seedling in Alberta, Canada, and had little resemblance to the fruit from the parent tree of the seedling. The Dutch botanist, Hugo DeVries ( 1848- 1935) called this mutation, or the sudden appearance of startling new properties or functions in the offspring from the parent plant. He changed the study of evolution from observation to experimental work. The true explanation of the origin and development of new varieties of plants lies possibly in some combination of facts of these different theories. Man has not reached the peak of development in this field. Luther Burbank ( 1849- 1926) carried on extensive experiments in plant breeding by selection, crossing and grafting and produced among other new and desirable varieties the spineless cactus, the Shasta daisy and the seedless apple. Right now scientists are trying to develop, through crossbreeding, plants which are immune to certain insects and plant diseases. 194 They want to rid the world of inferior species and develop a superior and better plant kingdom. It may be the beginning of " plant eugenics". Experiments with poplar hybrids have demonstrated that certain strains vary from practical immunity to complete susceptibility of defoliation by Japanese beetle. This has justified experiments to hybridize spruce species in the hope that they may produce strains resistant to budworm attacks. Also, successful hybridization between maple species and crosses between species of ash have recently been reported by the United States Forest Service. The rapid dying off of our native paper birch throughout its range, due to a combination of factors known as " die- back", has led to cross- breeding of our white or paper birch with gray birch in the hope of producing an improved birch resistant to " die- back". The hybrids produced so far are intermediate in growth rate, that is, faster than paper birch but not as fast as gray birch. It is interesting to note that hybrids often show more sustained growth than parent species. The production of fast growing, as well as insect immune and disease resistant varieties, is not only of great importance to the forest industries but also to the arborist and the horticulturist as well. The greatest problem facing the gardener, arborist and horticulturist today is the control of insects and diseases on crops and desirable shade and orchard trees. During the past seven or eight years, many new spray materials have been developed for the control of our insect pests and plant diseases. Some were hailed as miracle bug- killers. Unfortunately, most of them were placed on the market faster than experimental results warranted. Too much was expected of them. When the so- called DDT ( dichloro- diphenyl- trichloro- ethane) insecticide became available for civilian use after World War II, it brought a new concept of insect control to the gardener and horticulturist. They were told that one spraying would last for weeks, or even months, and would eliminate practically all pests. The insect merely had to walk over foliage sprayed with this material and in a matter of minutes it would be paralyzed! It was soon discovered, however, that while it would kill insects that were undesirable, it would also eliminate some predatory varieties that were desirable. In other words, it had the tendency to upset the " balance in nature" with disastrous results. Today, we are leaning more to the opinion that we shall have specific sprays for each insect pest or plant disease rather than an all- purpose spray material. We must learn to control our ever increasing insect problem or, as one prominent entomologist once predicted, " The bugs will inherit the earth". This is a real challenge and involves the work of the entomologist, the chemist and the botanist. The entomologist must determine the most vulnerable link in the life cycle of each insect, the chemist must find a suitable compound that will destroy the insect, and the botanist must experiment with foliage and plant tissues to find the insecticide that will not injure the 195 plant. Thus, it is apparent that the " dream spray" of every amateur, one that will do the job for all insects and different plants, will always be just that— a dream. Hormone compounds have been developed for use in the garden or orchard to assure a satisfactory fruit- set, to prevent premature drop of the fruit or, in the case of transplanting, to hasten the re- establishment of the plant by stimulation of root growth. When these materials have been perfected, they will be a boon to gardeners and horticulturists. On the other hand, there are instances where suppression or regulation of abnormal growth is desirable. For example, when nursery stock has been held in cold storage for a long period and then exposed to high temperatures the following spring, it may readily develop undesirable soft shoots. Recent experiments have indicated that this can be avoided, if the plants are kept dormant by spraying them in the fall or early spring with maleic- hydrazide. Another current development is the application of a nutrient element in the form of a spray solution directly to the foliage of the plant. This is revolutionary. If present experiments prove feasible, it will be possible to invigorate an ailing plant with a " shot in the air" instead of the ground. However, the cost of supplying nutrients to plants by this method will, doubtless, limit to special treatment under certain conditions rather than make it a substitute for the accepted practice of fertilization of the soil. The development of tree surgery is also noteworthy. In 1790, William Forsyth ( 1737- 1804), gardener to King George III, published his treatise of the treatment of wounds in fruit and forest trees. It was, indeed, a crude method compared with our present- day materials and technique. The so- called " Bartlett heal collar" has been one of the most important factors in the success of our modern treatment of cavities in trees. This " heal collar" serves to seal the cavity against air and moisture and protects the cambium cells from drying out, and thus promotes continuous callous growth at the edge of the wound. The new technique, or chemotherapy, for control of certain tree diseases is probably the most fascinating recent development. By this method, special chemicals are injected into the sap stream of a tree to counteract the toxic agents produced by such diseases as " bleeding canker", which attacks some of our most desirable shade trees. Experiments in chemotherapy for the control of the Dutch elm disease indicate that it is possible to condition trees to resist the disease by employing certain chemical combinations. The future development of this method of treating plants holds great possibilities. It is for the future scientists to give us the final answer to many of our present horticultural problems, if there is a final answer. You are on the first rung of the ladder. As you climb higher up, you will find many frontiers in the basic sciences still waiting to be explored. We still, for 196 instance, do not have the answer to the greatest mystery of all, namely, what is the nature and character of the green chlorophyl in plants. All living matter depends on it. What makes it " tick"? If you can find the answer to that question, you will have solved the age old riddle of life itself. There are those who say it is beyond the ken of man. Nevertheless, our best known amateur botanist, Charles Kettering, Director of Research for General Motors, who calls himself a " monkey wrench scientist", is working on this problem. He does not agree with those who claim this mystery cannot be solved by mortal man. Mr. Fenska, who is Secretary- Treasurer of the Westchester County Tree Protective Association, delivered the above address at the graduation exercises, on June 22, 1950, for students in the Two- Year Courses at the New York Botanical Garden. Rose- Qrowers' ( Day — June 1950 IN spite of disagreeable weather, more than three hundred visitors attended Rose- Growers' Day, June 15, 1950, at the New York Botanical Garden. This was the eighth annual event of such nature, arranged in co- operation with the American Rose Society. The theme of the day's program was the amateur's rose garden. While not everyone risked a drenching, a surprising number inspected the rose garden under the guidance of Lambertus C. Bobbink, of Rutherford, N. J. All were favorably impressed with the attractive layout and excellent condition of the plants. Among the notable varieties given to the rose garden this year by Bobbink & Atkins, Rutherford, N. J., were Mission Bells, Souv. de Jean Soupert, Golden Scepter, Golden Jubilee, and two weeping tree roses, Sanders' White and Minnehaha. The number of bushes now totals approximately 7,000. Dr. William J. Robbins, Director, welcomed the visitors when they gathered in the lecture hall for the morning session. Dr. P. P. Pirone, Plant Pathologist, then assumed the duties of presiding officer, introducing Floyd F. Eldred*, of Old Greenwich, Conn., and Dr. Charles Glen King, of Scarsdale, N. Y. Experiences in a Hillside Garden Dr. King gave a delightful talk about growing roses in his hillside garden. He said, in part: " In 1942, we moved to Scarsdale, N. Y., and found a new home to our liking, but the half acre lot had not been improved. Among the rather hurriedly planted trees and shrubs, we bought a few roses just as an experiment. Good luck with a dozen hybrid teas started us on our hobby which, apparently, has no limit. * See the July number of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for Mr. Eldred's talk on " An' I Learned about Roses from Them". 197 " Our rose garden now contains about 345 roses, in 52 varieties, most of which are hybrid teas. There are a few polyanthas and floribundas with only one rugosa and seven climbers on columns. " The roses which have given the most gratifying results are not always in the same relative position each year, but the following have been consistently exhilarating for a rank amateur. " Peace is right at the top of the list, for it does everything to perfection. It blooms continuously and generously, has richness of color both in foliage and flower, is vigorous in growth. Crimson Glory stands second in line as an all- round garden rose; a heavy bloomer in a velvety, rich, deep red. Eclipse is also a vigorous grower, a profuse bloomer, and has golden buds of striking form. " Other teas which we rate highly for their garden performance are Hector Deane, Lowell Thomas, Neige Parfum ( an exquisite white with a delightful perfume), Mme. Chiang Kai- shek ( of almost classic beauty as it opens), Charlotte Armstrong, Mary Margaret McBride, Betty Up-richard, Pedralbes and Sunset Glory. " Donald Prior we find one of the most satisfactory of the polyanthas A section of the extensive rose garden at the New York Botanical Garden, showing the shelter house under construction. for background material, for it bears its deep red flowers against clean, healthy leaves over a long period. Pinocchio is charming— the blooms profuse and dainty in form and color. The climber, New Dawn, produces its delicate pink flowers almost continuously, grows lustily and resists winterkill. " Just a word or two about mulching which is an important phase of growing good roses. My experience indicates that buckwheat hulls are the most satisfactory medium for this purpose. They are heavy enough to stay in place; furnish a uniformly soft, aesthetic background; provide complete protection against weeds, if applied an inch to an inch and a half thick; reduce the loss of ground moisture, for rain penetrates them; and prevent baking of the soil. Also, buckwheat hulls may be hilled up around the base of the rose bushes in winter and in spring raked level again." Rose Varieties for the Small Home Garden At the afternoon session, Roderick N. Crocket, of Hartford, Conn., President of the National Association of Gardeners, presided. Harry L. Erdman, Superintendent of the rose garden at Hershey, Pa., discussed " Rose Varieties for the Small Home Garden." Mr. Erdman stated that his subject was a controversial one in that personal likes and dislikes, different locations, different layouts and other conditions naturally affected the selection of varieties. Using " The Guide for Buying Rose Plants", distributed by the American Rose Society, Mr. Erdman named leading varieties in the various color groups for gardens small, medium and large. He ended his remarks with the recommendation that anyone contemplating a new rose garden— or even revising a present one— should visit the rose garden of the New York Botanical Garden and carefully study the different varieties, noting the habit of growth, the foliage, the shape and color of the flower. If three visits are made, said Mr. Erdman, in June, mid-season and September, then by the process of elimination one will be able to select the varieties of roses appealing most to him and most suitable to the conditions on his own place. Dr. P. W. Zimmerman, of the Boyce Thompson Institute, concluded the day's program with a very interesting talk on " Water Relations of Plants and Factors Affecting Conservation of Moisture", an abstract of which appears on page 191 of this issue. Conard- Pyle Co., West Grove, Pa., displayed the new miniature roses Pixie, Tom Thumb, Sweet Fairy, Red Elf, Bo- Peep and Midget. These tiny, hardy roses may be used in rock gardens, for edgings and for novelty display. They grow only six inches high and bloom all season. Bobbink & Atkins exhibited Autumn Bouquet ( new everblooming shrub rose), Baroness Rothschild and Felbergs Rosa Druschki ( hybrid per-petuals), Oskar Cordel ( hybrid perpetual, remontant) and Reichprasident von Hindenberg ( pillar shrub, remontant). 199 REVIEWS OF RECENT BOOKS An Aid to the Understanding Of Plant Life BOTANY. An inrtoduction to Plant Science. W. W. Robbins & T. E. Weier. 480 pages, illustrated, indexed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1950. $ 5.00. " Botany" by W. W. Robbins and T. E. Weier is more than an elementary text book for college students. It is a novel, stimulating and most interesting introduction to plant life. Over 500 illustrations aid in interpreting the descriptions and functions of tissues and organs of the plant body. The use of Phyllum in place of Division for the major classes o£ the plant kingdom is arbitrary and acceptable by some authorities. However, to designate the slime molds or Phyllum 9. Myxomy-cophyta as higher than the green, brown and red algae is subject to serious criticism. The tendency today is to class the slime molds as primitive forms of animal life. If accepted as plants the slime molds are usually placed after Phyllum 1. Scbi-zophyta ( fission plants). Mycologists would hesitate to consider slime molds as primitive forms of fungi. Under Chapter 4, headed: " The Plant Body of Seed Plants", there appear illustrations of blue- green algae; these are certainly misplaced under a chapter on seed plants. The text book, however, is excellent and recommended as good and easy reading for anyone interested in obtaining a clear and comprehensive understanding of the phenomena of plant life. G. L. WITTROCK. Well Known Scientists Capably Handle a Complex Subject AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY— Vol. 1: Principles of Agricultural Chemistry. Edited by Donald E. H. Frear. 812 pages, indexed. D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., New York, 1950. $ 9. Principles of Agricultural Chemistry is the first of two volumes planned to meet the needs of those interested in agricultural chemistry. This book is designed as a text book for the advanced student and as a general reference text for that host of workers in the field of agricultural chemistry and its closely related fields. In this volume the field of agricultural chemistry is divided into five parts and treated in twenty- four chapters. Each chapter is written by a specialist on that particular subject. Although there are many specialists in the various phases of agricultural chemistry, the editor has selected a group of exceedingly capable and well known scientists in the preparation of the volume. Despite the seemingly unrelated nature of many phases of agricultural chemistry, the authors have grouped their material into an orderly fashion under these five major divisions. For those individuals who are interested in going beyond the text book, each Chapter is well documented with references to the literature. Doubtless the specialists will find fault with certain portions of this book; however, as a general reference and text it will find wide use. The style of writing in several chapters is invigorating, STACY B. RANDLE, State Chemist N. J. Agricultural Experiment Sta. New Brunswick, N. J. Antibiotics Adequately Covered In This Volume ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY, and Related Subjects of Biochemistry. Vol. X. Edited by F. F. Nord. 533 pages, indexed. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, London, 1950. $ 7.50. The tenth volume maintains the usual fine standards of this series. The enzyme chapters are uniformly written in a flowing, readable style, without sacrifice of ample bibliographic reference. The subjects covered are " Blood Clotting and Related Processes" by Tage Astrup " Tryptophanase- Tryptophan Reaction" by Frank C. Happold, " Phosphatase Alcal-ine" by Jean Roche and Nguyen- Van 200 Thoai, " Synthesis of Disaccharides with Bacterial Enzymes" by W. Z. Hassid and M. Doudoroff, " Probleme des Citron-ensaurecyklus" by C. Martius and F. Lynen, " die Phytochemie des Schefels" by Theodor Bersin, and " Chemical Changes in the Harvested Tobacco Leaf." Part II. Chemical and Enzymic Conversion during Fermentation and Aging" by Walter G. Frankenburg. One of the " related subjects" is " Some Aspects of Streptomycin and Other Streptomyces Antibiotics", by Norman Brink and Karl Folkers, written as a compact summary of the chemistry of streptomycin, with only brief mention of Chloromycetin, aureomycin, and neomycin. The last chapter, by Claude Zobell, deals with assimilation of hydrocarbons by microorganisms. MABJORIE ANCHEL. Anthropocentric Emphasis in a Biological Textbook BIOLOGY. ITS HUMAN IMPLICATIONS. Garrett Hardin. 635 pages, illustrations, index. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1950. $ 5.00. Designed for the college student who will " never again be exposed to formal instruction" in biology, this text frankly stresses man rather than the amoeba. The section on The Measure of Man, a detailed treatment of anatomy and physiology, covers more than twice as much space as the following section on The Variety of Living Things in which all other forms, plant and animal, are crowded. The remainder of the book is given over to processes and characteristics integrating all life. This makes for a rather unconventional but nonetheless effective arrangement, particularly for the general student. The clear open style, humor rare in a textbook, and the almost cartoon- like illustrations make the work " readable" despite its high concentration of facts. The uninitiated student will be glad to find key technical terms clearly defined, with their derivations. But he may also find occasional rough going, if he has no more than an elementary knowledge of chemistry. Some biologists might object to the anthropocentric tenor of the entire book but, in view of its stated purpose, the emphasis seems justified. That there is no lack of humility is evident from the author's final statement: " The magnitude and immediacy of the problems facing us make an admiring backward glance at our progress seem indecent. In this uncertain world, the only honest glory we may hope to gain is that which may be ours if we attack our problems with clarity and high spirit." MARJORIE E. SWIFT, Heyden Chemical Corporation, Princeton, N. J. Histological Technique PRACTICAL SECTION CUTTING AND STAINING. E. C. Clayden. 129 pages, illustrated, indexed. Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., Brooklyn, N. Y. 1948. $ 2.75. Essentially a manual of methods for the hospital technician, this concisely written volume is divided into three parts: paraffin sections, frozen sections, and celloidin sections. Under each heading the author outlines the details of fixation, embedding and cutting, followed by schedules of staining procedures appropriate to each technique. The various steps are explained, so that a beginner may have some idea of why each step is necessary and how to avoid mistakes. VIRGINIA C. LITTAU. For Neophyte Foresters FOREST PRODUCTS. A. J. Panshin, E. S. Harrar, W. J. Baker & P. B. Proctor. 549 pages, illustrated, indexed, McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York. 1950. $ 6. The preface of " Forest Products" states: " A textbook may be likened to a pair of crutches; it assists the tyro until he can walk alone in his chosen field". Thus the authors have tacitly stated their objective and in compiling and condensing the subject matter of this broad field, they have adhered admirably to their goal. " Forest Products" should prove a valuable addition to the book shelf of all neophyte foresters. As a textbook it is unexcelled in its field. Coverage of the economics of forest utilization is adequate for a book of this type which introduces such a multiplicity of topics. Few, if any, important products of the forest are neglected. Throughout the book basic concepts are developed without indulging in detailed statistical studies. This fact makes 201 The World's Finest NEW Varieties Glorious color and thrilling new beauty for your garden may be found in the pages of Wayside Gardens' splendid catalog for autumn planting. • EXCITING NEW LILIES • OUTSTANDING NEW ROSES • BEAUTIFUL NEW PERENNIALS t' • HARDY FLOWERING SHRUBS as well as the world's largest selection of tulips, daffodils and other fall planting bulbs. DAFFODIL COLLECTION of JOHN EVELYN HYBRIDS The finest daffodils ever introduced. Huge white petaled beauties with deeply ruffled and widely flaring cups of soft canary yellow to deep gold. Perfectly hardy, these big, double- nosed bulbs bloom freely year after year, unaffected by the elements. For complete descriptions and true color illus- IS, see our new Fall Catalog. JOHN EVELYN HYBRID COLLECTION 1 EACH OF 6 VARIETIES ( 8 ) . . . . $ 3.75 3 EACH OF 8 VARIETIES ( 24) $ 10.00 N e w ROSES Planning a new rose garden — then by all means get our 1950 Fall Catalog. Among the more than 150 outstanding varieties offered are several " Special Collections" of choice roses at really attractive savings. Also described and illustrated are all the celebrated new roses as well as the " 1950 All- America Rose Selections." N e w SHRUBS In our Fall Catalog is a splendid array of handsome all purpose shrubs. There are exquisite flowering crabs, superior rhododendron hybrids, new 7' high scarlet flowered cydonia and many other worthwhile new shrubs. See Clarke's Giant, the largest and best lilac in existence and Esther Staley, the only true pink lilac. WAYSIDE'S " 1950 TULIP MIXTURE" Our famous " Tulip Mixture" contains only the very finest, top size, bloom filled, . imported tulips. This outstanding annual offer that cannot be duplicated elsewhere at double the prices shown, is designed to give you all the best varieties at unbelievably low cost. SUPERIOR BULBS Order these prize bulbs with confidence, they come to you with Wayside's ironclad guarantee of superior quality. WAYSIDE GARDENS' TULIP MIXTURE 50 bulbs...$ 6.50 1 250 bulbs.$ 28.00 100 bulbs...$ 12.00 11000 bulbs.$ 100.00 SEND FOR THE WORLD'S FINEST HORTICULTURAL BOOK- CATALOG 140 pages of true color illustrations and complete descriptions of the world's finest flowers, shrubs and hardy plants. Gardeners everywhere have come to rely on this valuable book as their source of ideas and the most worth-white garden subjects. Explicit cultural directions for each item. To be sure you get your copy, it is necessary to enclose with your request 504, coin or stamps, for postage and handling. 51 MENTOR AVE. MENTOR, OHIO IDEAL DARWIN ML1P Wttoricle IM Gajxlervr 202 the book very desirable for classroom use. It is the reviewer's opinion that the maximum amount of pertinent information has been crammed into the five hundred and twenty- six pages of " Forest Products". The excellent reference list at the end of each chapter facilitates complete pursuit of any selected field. DAVID P. THOMAS, University of Washington. Of Interest to Entomologists A CENTURY OF ENTOMOLOGY IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. Melville H. Hatch. 43 pages. Illustrated, indexed. University of Washington Press. Seattle, Wash. 1949. $ 1.50. This short treatise on the rise and growth of Entomology in the Pacific Northwest includes a description of the outstanding men and the more important books and insect collections prepared by them. Of greatest interest to most entomologists, perhaps, is the chapter dealing with the present status of entomology in the region comprising British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. P. P. PIRONE, Floriculture Brought Up To Date FLORICULTURE. Alex Laurie & Victor H. Ries. 525 pages, illustrated, indexed. McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York. 2nd edition 1950. $ 5. The second edition of Floriculture— Principles and Practices, by Laurie and Ries, is essentially the first edition with a few revisions. The largest revisions occur in the sections on insect and fungus pest control, which have been rewritten to include newer control measures with organic pesticides such as benzenehexa-chloride, chlordane, DDT, Parathion, Fermate, Parzate, Ceresan, and others. There have been some additions to the chapter on soils to include newer methods of watering and the use of corn cob mulches. The discussion of green manures has also been completely revised. Information on vermiculite, chemical control of lawn weeds and pests, propagation by leaf bud cuttings, starting annuals, propagation and use of perennials, and gravel culture has also been added. Also, to bring the first edition UD to date, some minor changes have been made in the sections on chrysanthemums, broad leafed evergreens, hardiness, pH, African violets, and soil preparation. This book is general in its coverage and is, therefore, less subject to the general revisions necessary in a more technical book that goes deeper into a specific field. ARTHUR BING, N. Y. State College of Agriculture. A First- Class Reference On Annuals ANNUALS. Roy Hay. 240 pages, illustrated, indexed. Macmillan, New York. Revised edition 1950. $ 2.50. " Annuals" by Roy Hay is an interesting book, being a revision of the author's first published edition of 1937. It is divided into two sections. The first chapter is devoted to " definitions, distribution and development". Mr. Roy here points out that many of the plants described in his book are biennial or perennial in nature but are recommended to be grown as annuals. Another chapter is devoted to annuals that have been lost to cultivation and apparently there are many of merit. Methods of growing and the many ways in which these garden favorites may be put to use complete part one of this work. Part two comprises a comprehensive list of all the worthwhile kinds. It gives the common names of all those described, the botanical names and their derivation. Useful information of a cultural character is also included. The book is well illustrated with numerous black and white and colored plates. I consider " Annuals" an excellent reference work. EDWIN BECKETT, Berkshire Garden Center, Stockbridge, Mass. Conventional Text PLANT ECOLOGY. W. B. McDougall. 234 pages, 118 illustrations. Indexed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia. Fourth edition, 1949. $ 4. As a fourth edition, this volume, even though stated on the title page to be " thoroughly revised," contains no significant improvements over the third edition. In addition, there are no fundamental differences in organization or content, other than literature references, from the first edition of two decades ago. As a textbook of university plant ecology, this work will probably hold its place in conventional courses where a relatively brief text is needed. 203 Notes, News and Comment Dr. Merrill Honored. At a special ceremony in Paris, on May 7, the Societe Nationale d' Acclimatation de France conferred its Geoffroy Saint Hilaire medal on Dr. E. D. Merrill, member of the Board of Managers of the New York Botanical Garden. Graduation Excercises. Graduation exercises for students in the Two- Year Courses at the New York Botanical Garden were held on Thursday evening, June 22, 1950, with G. L. Wittrock, Assistant Curator of Education, in charge of the program. Henry De la Montagne, Assistant Director of the Garden, presented certificates in the Science Course to Ferdinand A. Czwaczka, Clifford H. Howell, Frank M. Wright, Edna May Wright, Dominic Ziccardi; in the Practical Gardening Course to John J. Blum, Howard L. Campion, Walter Jamroga, also to Mr. Czwaczka and Mr. & Mrs. Wright. R. R. Fenska, Secretary- Treasurer of the Westchester County Tree Protective Association, delivered the address of the evening. It appears elsewhere on page 193 of this issue of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden. T. H. Everett Continues as Horticulturist, Louis Politi Named Head Gardener. To expand the horticultural activities of the New York Botanical Garden and render greater horticultural service to members, students and the general public, it was found expedient to create again two distinct positions, that of Horticulturist and that of Head Gardener. Acccordingly, on July 1, 1950, T. H. Everett was relieved of his responsibilities as Head Gardener, these being assumed by Louis P. Politi. Mr. Everett continues as Horticulturist. Under the new arrangement, Mr. Everett is responsible for the planning of the general landscape effects and for the scope and character of the living plant collections. He will interpret horticulture to the general public and will develop the horticultural displays and activities of the New York Botanical Garden. Mr. Everett will also supervise the student gardeners' program which has recently been resumed at the New York Botanical Garden. Mr. Politi has full charge of the propagation and cultivation of the living plant collections and the supervision of the work of all the gardeners. Lectures. On June 13, Dr. P. P. Pirone lectured on " Tree Care" before the members of the Garden Club of Great Barrington, Mass., at the home of William Felton Barrett. On June 19th, Mr. E. J. Alexander spoke to the Gardeners of New Canaan, an affiliate garden club, on " Wild Flowers for our Gardens" Dr. Bassett Maguire presented the film, " Rediscovery of Arundinaria Schomburg-hii" to the guests of Mr. H. R. Kunhardt, Jr., at the Indian Harbor Yacht Club, Greenwich, Conn., on June 29. Meetings. Dr. William J. Robbins lectured on " Hybrid Nutritional Requirements" before the Conference on Heer-osis at Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, on the 19th of the month. Dr. P. P. Pirone attended the Arboricultural Field Day held at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. on June 21. Bobbink & Atkins " GARDEN GEMS" for your Garden Library Build your garden with the help of this outstanding catalog. In it are described and illustrated in color the best of the New and Old- fashioned Roses; Unusual Evergreen Shrubs and Vines; Azaleas and Rhododendrons; Magnolias; Lilacs and many other Flowering Shrubs; all the novelty and old favorite Perennial Flowers and Ground Covers, and a host of other rare and unusual " Garden Gems"; designed to help you plan and plant your garden. Free east of the Mississippi; 35 cents elsewhere. Customers of record receive their copies automatically. Visitors are always welcome at our nurseries located about nine miles from the New Jersey side of the Lincoln and Holland Tunnels and George Washington Bridge. Less than thirty minutes from central New York. Bobbink & Atkins Rose Growers and Nurserymen 401 Paterson Ave., East Rutherford, N. J. 204 Representation at VII International Botanical Congress: Dr. Donald P. Rogers represented the New York Botanical Garden and Oberlin College and served as alternate of the Mycological Society of America. Dr. H. W. Rickett represented the Torrey Botanical Club, American Society of Plant Taxonomists, served as alternate for the Dept. of Botany, University of Pennsylvania, and Soc-iedad Botanica de Mexico, and cast the votes of the Botanical Society of America. Dr. H. N. Moldenke, in addition to being the official delegate of the American Plant Life Society and the New York Academy of Science, represented fourteen institutions and special groups from Mexico, Central and South American countries. These included Jardin Botan-ico de Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute de Biologia, both of Mexico City, Mexico, and Concepcion, Chile; Estacion Experimental Agronomica, Santiago de las Vegas, and Ministerio de Agricultura, Cuba; Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Ecuador ; Universidad de Narino, Columbia; and Museo Botanico de la Faculta de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Na-cional de Cordoba, Argentina. Just as the August issue was going to press, air mail from Stockholm brought word that Dr. Rogers was made Secretary of the Special Committee for Fungi, and that Dr. Rickett served as a member of the General Committee on Nomenclature, of the Editorial Committee of the International Rules, and of the Special Committee for Nomenclature of Plants in Cultivation. Dr. W. H. Camp, until recently a member of the Garden's staff, was made Secretary of the last named committee. Modernization of the parts of the rules dealing with hybrid plants and with plants in cultivation are among the real accomplishments of the Section in Nomenclature of the Seventh International Botanical Congress. Visitors. Dr. H. B. Woodruff and Dr. Dale Harris, of Merck & Company, Rahway, N. J., and Dr. H. M. McGuire of the Lily Research Laboratories visited Dr. Robbins and toured the laboratories on June 14. The following week Dr. Ismael Velez, professor of botany of Polytechnic Institute, San German, Puerto Rico, paid his respects to Dr. Robbins. On June 27, Dr. E. C. T. Holsinger, botanist, of Columbo, Ceylon, called on Dr. Robbins and visited the laboratories. The same day, Mr. Edwin T. de Bechtel, Mrs. J. Henry Harper, Mrs. Ira Haupt and Mrs. Frederick S. Moseley, Jr., had luncheon with Dr. Robbins. Other visitors to the New York Botanical Garden during June included: Leonard Buck and C. Austin Buck, Far Hills, N. J.; W. E. Th. Ingwerson, East Grins-ted, Sussex, England; R. E. Bottomley, Milf ord, Conn.; G. F. Woerner, Stumpp & Walter Co., New York City; Marguerite Palmer, Garden Editor, Houston Press, Houston, Texas; J. E. Gunckel, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J.; B. Schwartz, Library of Congress Washington, D. C.; Florence E. Day, Metropolitan Museum; Monroe Bricker, University of Miami; Werner & Lillie Fayet Hunsche, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Marguerite Ste. Marie and Louise Allard of the Jardin Botanique, Montreal; Marie Helene Goutreau, Canadian Horticultural Society; A. C. Smith, Smithsonian Institute; L. R. Freese, University of Houston; Herman Silva, Michigan State College; Dr. Margaret Fulford, University of Cincinnati; Maxwell S. Doty, Woods Hole, Mass. Thirty- two members of the Maplewood Garden Club, of which Mrs. Hugh T. Morgan is president, were conducted through the greenhouse and rock garden by Mr. G. L. Wittrock. Population and Plants The population of the United States has already reached the figure of 150,- 000,000 that had been expected by demographers about 25 years later, according to Joseph S. Davis, Director of the Research Staff of the Food Research Institute at Stanford University. His statistics showing how all predictions and theories of the earlier part of the century have been upset are given in the Institute's War- Peace Pamphlet No. 12, " The Population Upsurge in the United States" ($ 1). By ignoring the actual trend, the nation is not prepared to take care of a continuing increase of this magnitude, he contends. Since all food is derived ultimately from plants, the food alone for the unpredicted extra millions is a problem of concern to botanists as well as producers. THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Officers JOSEPH R. SWAN, Chairman CHARLES B. HARDING, President FREDERICK S. MOSELEY, JR., Vice- President ARTHUR M. ANDERSON, Treasurer HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE, Secretary Elective Managers REV. R. I. GANNON, S J . ROBERT H. MONTGOMERY MRS. ELON HUNTINGTON FRANCIS E. POWELL, JR. HOOKER MRS. HAROLD I. PRATT SIDNEY LANIER WILLIAM J. ROBBINS MRS. ALBERT D. LASKER EDMUND W. SINNOTT CLARENCE MCK. LEWIS CHAUNCEY STILLMAN THOMAS LEWIS OAKLEIGH L. THORNE E. D. MERRILL Ex- Officio Managers WILLIAM O'DWYER, Mayor of the City of New York MAXIMILIAN MOSS, President of the Board of Education ROBERT MOSES, Park Commissioner DOUGLAS H. ALLEN SHERMAN BALDWIN WILLIAM FELTON BARRETT HOWARD BAYNE EDWIN DE T. BECHTEL LEONARD J. BUCK HENRY F. DU PONT Appointive Managers By the Torrey Botanical Club: RUTHERFORD PLATT. By Columbia University: MARSTON T. BOGERT, CHARLES W. BALLARD, SAM F. TRELEASE. THE STAFF WILLIAM J. ROBBINS, P H . D . , SC. D. HENRY DE LA MONTAGNE J. MARK KERANS, LL. B. H. A. GLEASON, P H . D. P. P. PIRONE, P H . D . THOMAS H. EVERETT, N. D. HORT. H. W. RICKETT, P H . D. HAROLD N. MOLDENKE, P H . D. BASSETT MAGUIRE, P H . D . DONALD PHILIP ROGERS, P H . D . E. J. ALEXANDER, B. S. G. L. WITTROCK, A. M. F. W. KAVANAGH, P H . D . IGOR NICHOLAS ASHESHOV, M. D. ROBERT S. DE ROPP, P H . D . , D. I. C MARJORIE ANCHEL, P H . D . ROSALIE WEIKERT MARY STEBBINS, M. A. RICHARD S. COWAN, M. S. JOHN J. WURDACK, B. S. ELIZABETH C. HALL, A. B., B. S. DOROTHY EBEL HANSELL FRANK C. MACKEEVER, B. S. JOSEPH MONACHINO, B. S. OTTO DEGENER, M. S. ELMER N. MITCHELL BERNARD 0. DODGE, P H . D . A. B. STOUT, P H . D. FRED J. SEAVER, P H . D . , S C D . INEZ M. HARING JOSEPH F. BURKE Director Assistant Director Administrator Head Curator Plant Pathologist Horticulturist Bibliographer Curator and Administrator of Herbarium Curator Curator Associate Curator Assistant Curator of Education Associate Curator of Laboratories Bacteriologist Assistant Curator Research Associate Technical Assistant Technical Assistant Technical Assistant Technical Assistant Librarian Editor of the Journal Custodian of the Herbarium Associate Custodian of the Herbarium Collaborator in Hawaiian Botany Photographer Plant Pathologist Emeritus Curator Emeritus Curator Emeritus Assistant Honorary Curator of Mosses Honorary Curator of the Diatomaceae ETHEL ANSON S. PECKHAM Honorary Curator, Iris and Narcissus Collections A. C. PFANDER Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds LOUIS P. POLITI Head Gardener To reach the Botanical Garden, take the Independent Subway to Bedford Park Boulevard station, use the Bedford Park Boulevard exit and walk east. Or take the Third Avenue Elevated to the Botanical Garden or the 200th Street station, the New York Central to the Botanical Garden station, or the Webster Avenue bus No. 41 to Bedford Park Boulevard. tanical Garden station, or the Webster Avenue PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Books, Booklets, and Special Numbers of the Journal An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown. Three volumes, giving descriptions and illustrations of 4,666 species. Second edition, reprinted. $ 15. Flora of the Prairies and Plains of Central North America, by P. A. Rydberg. 969 pages and 601 figures. 1932. $ 6. Plants of the Vicinity of Neiv York, by H. A. Gleason. 284 pages, illustrated. A handbook especially compiled for the beginner. 1935. Second edition 1947. $ 2. The Bahama Flora, by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Charles Frederick Millspaugh. 695 pages. Descriptions of the spermatophytes, pteridophytes, bryophytes, and thallophytes of the Bahamas, with keys, notes on explorations and collections, bibliography, and index. 1920. $ 6.25. North American Cariceae, by Kenneth K. Mackenzie, containing 539 plates of Carex and related plants by Harry C. Creutzburg, with a description of each species. Indexed. 1940. Two volumes, 10% x 13J4 inches; bound $ 17.50. Foreign postage extra. Keys to the North American Species of Carex by K. K. Mackenzie. From Vol. 19, Part 1, of North American Flora. $ 1.25. Plants of the Holy Scriptures, by Eleanor King, with a check- list of plants that are mentioned in the Bible, each one accompanied by a quotation. Revised from the Journal of March 1941. 23 pages, illustrated. 1948. 25 cents. Food and Drug Plants of the North American Indian. Two illustrated articles by Marion A. & G. L. Wittrock in the Journal for March 1942. 15 cents. Vegetables and Fruits for the Home Garden. Four authoritative articles reprinted from the Journal, 21 pages, illustrated. Edited by Carol H. Woodward. 1941. 15 cents. The Flora of the Unicorn Tapestries by E. J. Alexander and Carol H. Woodward. 28 pages, illustrated with photographs and drawings; bound with paper. 1941. Second edition 1947, reprinted. 25 cents. Catalog of Hardy Trees and Shrubs. A list of the woody plants being grown outdoors at the New York Botanical Garden in 1942, in 127 pages with notes, a map, and 20 illustrations. 75 cents. Succulent Plants of New and Old World Deserts by E. J. Alexander. 64 pages, indexed. 350 species treated, 100 illustrated. Bound in paper. 1942. Second edition 1944. Third edition 1950. 50 cents. Review of Juniperus chinensis, et at by P. J. van Melle. A study of the many varieties and forms of Juniperus which have been commonly included in the concept of /. chinensis. 108 pages, illustrated, bound in paper. 1947. $ 2. Periodicals Journal of The New York Botanical Garden, monthly, containing news, book reviews, and non- technical articles on botany, exploration, and horticulture. $ 1.50 a year; single copies 15 cents. Free to members of the Garden. Now in its 51st volume. The Garden, a quarterly, designed to stimulate the laymen's interest in the world of plants and the science of plant life through articles written in popular vein. $ 2 a year in the United States; all other countries, $ 2.50. Published by the Garden's Manhattan office at 801 Madison Avenue, New York 21, N. Y. Now in its second volume. Addisonia, devoted exclusively to colored plates accompanied by popular descriptions of flowering plants; eight plates in each number, thirty- two in each volume. Now in its twenty- second volume. Published irregularly. Subscription price, $ 10 a volume. Not offered in exchange. Free to members of the Garden. Mycologia, bimonthly, illustrated in color and otherwise; devoted to fungi, including lichens, containing technical articles and news and notes of general interest. $ 7 a year; single copies $ 1.50 each. Now in its forty- second volume. Brittonia. A series of botanical papers published in co- operation with the American Society of Plant Taxonomists. Subscription price of volumes 1 through 5, $ 5 a volume ($ 4 to members of the Society). Now in its seventh volume. Price, $ 7.50 ($ 5 to members of the Society). North American Flora. Descriptions of the wild plants of North America, including Greenland, the West Indies, and Central America. 97 parts now issued. Not offered in exchange. Prices of the separate parts on request. Contributions from The New York Botanical Garden. A series of technical papers reprinted from journals other than the above, 1899- 1933. 25 cents each, $ 5 a volume. List of separate titles on request. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden. A collection of scientific papers, 1900- 1927. Contents and prices on request. |
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